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CWA # 1259, 28 March 2024
Conflict Weekly
UNSC Resolution on Gaza, Terror Attack in Moscow, and a Profile of the IS-K

  IPRI Team

Conflict Weekly #221, 28 March 2024, Vol.5, No.13
An initiative by NIAS-IPRI

Rosemary Kurian, Padmashree Anandhan and Alka Bala

Gaza: Finally, a UN Security Council Resolution
Rosemary Kurian

In the news
On 25 March, the UN Security Council passed a resolution demanding an immediate ceasefire in Gaza, and an unconditional release of all hostages. The resolution, the first since the war began, stresses the “urgent need to expand the flow” of aid into Gaza. The resolution was passed with 14 in favour, none against and one abstention (US). 

Following the resolution, Hamas announced that it was ready “to engage in an immediate prisoner exchange process that leads to the release of prisoners on both sides.”

On the same day, the office of the Israeli Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu, stated that the US had “abandoned” its long-standing position, adding that “regrettably, the United States did not veto the new resolution.” The US National Security Council spokesperson, John Kirby, stated that the US’s decision to abstain did not mean a “shift in our policy.”

On 23 March, Netanyahu stated that while they appreciated US support, “if we have to– we will do it alone.”

Issues at large
First, the four failed attempts earlier in the UNSC. Since the war began, four draft resolutions demanding a ceasefire have been introduced and vetoed. The US vetoed the first three; Russia and China vetoed the last, which the US-sponsored on 22 March. For three previous resolutions, the US backed Israel’s right to defend itself, claiming that a ceasefire at that time would benefit Hamas. 

Second, the debate over ceasefire. There is a lack of consensus on the nature of the UN resolutions. Under Article 25 of the UN Charter, all UNSC resolutions are binding. A breach of the resolution by the signatory would prompt an additional vote demanding punitive measures. Israel has a history of flouting resolutions, the most recent being Israel’s failure to act upon the General Assembly’s call for a “humanitarian ceasefire” in December 2023. The current resolution was negotiated to build consensus by removing the term “permanent” for the nature of ceasefire demands. Russia insisted on a permanent ceasefire to prevent Israel from interpreting the text in its favour and resuming military operations in Gaza after Ramadan. 

Third, increasing divide between the US and Israel. The US’ unquestioned and unequivocal support for Israel to secure its “right to defend itself” gradually turned into disapproval of Netanyahu’s leadership after the offensive in Rafah. In response to the 7 October attack, Biden expressed his support that “Israel’s security is rock solid and unwavering.” However, after the mounting death toll in Gaza, Biden welcomed the call for a four-day pause in fighting on 21 November 2023. On 12 December, Biden accused Israel of “indiscriminate bombing” in Gaza. When Israel initiated its offensive in Rafah, Biden openly criticised it, calling their approach “over the top.” During his State of the Union Address on 7 March, Biden stated that “the only real solution is a two-state solution.” He later stated that Netanyahu was “hurting Israel more than helping Israel.” Israel is upset over the US, and the statement by Netanyahu that Israel would go alone should highlight the growing differences between the two leaders.

Fourth, growing international pressure on Israel. The EU initially accepted Israel’s right to defend the “barbaric terrorist attacks” by Hamas. However, on 2 March, it condemned the restrictions imposed on the entry of humanitarian aid into Gaza, urging Israel to “fully cooperate with the UN agencies.” Germany and France, two big supporters in Europe do not agree with Israel’s strategy on Gaza.

In perspective
The rift that began between Israel and the US over Israel’s campaign in Gaza has turned into a wide chasm after the US abstained from voting. Israel has refused to accept the resolution, putting its applicability at risk. The alternative is the international community enforcing it through punitive actions, which seems unlikely since the US announced that its abstention does not imply a “shift in policy” in its approach to Israel. The text of the resolution, since it is derived from consensus, is not meant to be long-term, given the lack of “permanence” in its duration. Therefore, even if Israel agrees to its terms, it won’t last for longer than two weeks and pave the way for a sustained pause. 

The only way a resolution can work is if Israel wants it to work. Despite international condemnation, Israel refused to allow the operation of the UNRWA in Gaza and continued aggressive settler violence against Palestinians in the West Bank. International condemnation hasn’t prevented Netanyahu from taking a step back from the war. The success of the ceasefire can only be witnessed after Netanyahu’s next step. Netanyahu’s next step would determine the nature of the trajectory of the war. 

Russia: ISIS terror attack in Moscow
Padmashree Anandhan

In the news
On 22 March, Russia’s Investigative Committee reported on an attack on the Crocus City Hall, a concert venue in Moscow, leading to the death of 133 and injuring 150 people. Russian President Vladimir Putin called it an “organised mass murder” and announced the introduction of anti-terrorist and anti-sabotage measures. According to Russia’s Federal Security Service report (FSB), 11 people were arrested in Bryansk, including the four gunmen, under suspicion of direct involvement. 

On 23 March, Radio Free Europe reported on the involvement of Tajik citizens in the attack. Interrogation of the detained men disclosed that they were hired by anonymous individuals to “shoot at people” and were offered RUB one million in return.

On 25 March, White House National Security Communications Advisor, John Kirby, said: “…we have been monitoring ISIS that we were able to give the Russians a warning that, in fact, they were heading for a potential terrorist attack in the very near future.”

On 25 March, in a video conference with heads of the government, Putin acknowledged the attackers as “radical Islamists.” 

On 24 March, according to France 24, a fresh set of aerial attacks was launched by Russia towards Kyiv concentrated in western Ukraine. The attack was launched a day after Russia claimed to have captured Ivanivske, a Ukrainian village near Bakhmut. The city of Lviv near the Polish border was also attacked, leading to an airspace breach in Polish airspace by Russian missiles.

Issues at large
First, the IS-Khorasan (IS-K) and its recent attacks. The IS, formed in 2014, attracted ousted members of the Pakistani Taliban, non-believers and followers of Shia Islam. Its composition of militants from Central Asia and the formation of networks in Central Asia, Russia and Chechnya have become the spark points of the spread of terrorism in Iran, Turkey and Russia. Between 2019 and 2021, its activity peaked in Afghanistan and on withdrawal of the US, it staged one of the most devastating attacks on the Kabul airport. Since the Taliban takeover, its rate of launching successful attacks has reduced significantly.

Second, the Islamic State (IS) and Russia. Islamic militancy has been an issue for Russia since it invaded Afghanistan, followed by militancy in Chechnya. In recent years, after the formation of ISIS, the Kremlin’s intervention in Syria has been a primary factor in the former’s approach towards Russia. 

Third, the US intelligence warning about the attack and the Russian response. On 07 March, the US warned about an imminent threat for Moscow from extremists and recommended avoiding large gatherings during the next 48 hours. Russia perceived it as a “obvious blackmail,” by the US to trigger fear among Russians.

In perspective
First, contextualising the attack in the war in Ukraine. The Kremlin sees the IS attack as a trigger for Russia to react, thereby diverting its attention from the war in Ukraine. Putin hinted at Ukraine's involvement in the attack and accused Kyiv of providing a window for the perpetrators to escape. Increased aerial attacks in Western Ukraine on 23 and 25 March would underline Russia’s response to the militant attack in Moscow.

Second, the expansion of IS-K. After 2019, ISIS staged attacks in eastern Syria has managed to escape from the international restrictions and expand through regular recruits and operate in Central Asia, Sahel, east, central Africa and Asia. 

Islamic State Khorasan (IS-K): A profile
Alka Bala

On 22 March, the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria in a statement claimed responsibility for the attacks through the ISIS-affiliated news agency Amaq on Telegram. According to the statement, which was not backed by evidence, ISIS stated that its fighters attacked Moscow “killing and wounding hundreds and causing great destruction to the place before they withdrew to their bases safely.” On 23 March, ISIS stated the attacks to be part of its war against countries fighting Islam

Since its inception in 2014, the Islamic State Khorasan (IS-K) has acted as an IS affiliate in Central Asia. Khorasan refers to a geographic region comprising parts of present-day Iran, Central Asia, Afghanistan and Pakistan. Post IS-K declaration of allegiance to the IS’ global “Ummah,” its leadership has extended support and financial resources to develop its Central Asian network. 

Base in Afghanistan
The IS-K is believed to have its primary presence in the eastern Nangarhar province of Afghanistan, focusing its activities around Kabul and the provinces of Kunar, Jowzjan, Paktia, Kunduz, and Herat. Its objectives include establishing Islamic Caliphate in South and Central Asia and implementing Sharia. By 2016, the number of IS-K fighters was estimated to be between 3000 to 4000; however, this declined subsequently. 

Leadership and support base
According to reports available, in 2014, IS-K was led by Tehrik-e Taliban Pakistan (TTP) commander Hafiz Saeed Khan and former Taliban commander Abdul Rauf Khadim as the deputy. Khan engaged other significant TTP members, its spokesperson Sheikh Maqbool, and district chiefs to form the first Khorasan Shura, the leadership council. Tehrik-e Taliban Pakistan, also referred to as Pakistani Taliban, was formed to fight against NATO forces in Afghanistan, undertaking “defensive jihad” against Pakistan and enforcing Sharia. 

Its membership and support base comprised of Pakistani militants, estranged members of TTP and Lashkar-e Islam. According to the Combatting Terrorism Center at West Point, certain “members of  had also defected to IS-K.” IS-K’s founding emir, Hafiz Saeed Khan, and the chiefs, including Abdul Hasib, Abu Sayed, and Abu Saad Orakzai, were exterminated in targeted strikes by the US in the years 2016, 2017 and 2018, respectively. These leaders were part of militant movements in Afghanistan, Pakistan and Uzbekistan. Sanaullah Ghafari, the emir who led IS-K since June 2020, was killed by Taliban’s security forces in Kunar province of Afghanistan. Taliban spokesperson Zabihullah Mujahid stated that since August 2021, “their security forces have arrested and imprisoned up to 1,700 IS-K militants and killed close to 1,100 others, including key commanders.” 

Areas of operations, ideology and strategies involved
IS-K’s operations in Afghanistan and Pakistan are aimed at questioning the legitimacy of the government. It views nation-states as illegitimate and disrupts democratic processes. Clashes between IS-K and Taliban exist and IS-K pose security threats to the Taliban government. Under Sanaullah Ghafari’s leadership, IS-K focused on expansion and recruitment in Central Asia and increasing attacks in Kabul, mostly targeting Shia Muslims and other religious minorities.

IS-K and the Taliban adhere to contrasting ideologies and ideas of nationalism. IS-K is committed to Salafism and considers the Taliban’s commitment to the Sunni Islamic sectarian school, as flawed. The Taliban’s aim included rule over Afghanistan and the strictest interpretation of Sharia for governance, whereas IS-K believes in expanding the Caliphate beyond the internationally ordained borders. IS-K also has accused the Taliban of carrying out peace negotiations in “posh hotels” in Doha, instead of continuing jihad on the battleground. Although the groups carry out operations against each other, there remains scope for local collaboration as they are connected via the Haqqani network, which mainly consists of Taliban defectors.

IS-K believes that the jihad in Khorasan is a blessing of Allah and further justifies its fights with disbelievers. Since IS-K believes that the Islamic Caliphate is not limited to a country, IS-K does not recognise the legitimacy of international borders. It views its territories beyond the national borders of Afghanistan and Pakistan and aims to establish and expand the Caliphate in Southern and Central Asia. The end goal remains to be the implementation of Shariah in these regions. Although  IS-K has been involved in acts abroad it majorly carries out violence locally. 

Its strategies include deepening existing sectarianism, exiting poor economic conditions to create instability further and delegitimising the governments of Pakistan and Afghanistan. It uses methods such as military-style assaults, ambushes, beheadings and bombings to achieve its goals, targeting foreign aid workers, ethnic minorities and civilians, who appear opposing to the interpretation of Sharia. Between 2017-2018, IS-K launched 84 attacks in Afghanistan and 11 in Pakistan, killing 819 and 338 civilians, respectively. Abroad, IS-K has conducted attacks in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan and it has claimed responsibility for carrying out two explosions in Iran in January 2024, killing 100 people and wounding 284 people on the fourth death anniversary of Iran’s top commander Qassem Soleimani. It also targeted Russia by bombing the Russian embassy in Kabul in September 2022 and in 2024, by directly attacking civilians at the concert in Moscow.

Issues in Peace and Conflict This Week:
Regional Roundups
Vetriselvi Baskaran, Akhil Ajith, Anu Maria Joseph, Femy Francis, Padmashree Anandhan, Dhriti Mukherjee, Shamini Velayutham, Navinan GV, and Narmatha S 

East and Southeast Asia
China: The Philippines warned over the growing maritime confrontations
On 25 March, the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs warned the Philippines against the growing tensions and confrontations in the South China Sea. It asked Manila to behave cautiously and seek dialogue as their relations are at “crossroads.” The Chinese Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs, Chen Xiaodong, conveyed the message to his Philippine counterpart, Theresa Lazaro, amidst the growing tensions near the Second Thomas Shoal. Chen stated: “China once again urges the Philippines to honor its commitments and consensus, stop its maritime abuses and provocations, stop any unilateral actions that may complicate the situation, and earnestly return to the right track of properly handling differences through dialogue and consultation with China.” Lazaro, in response, protested the aggression by the Chinese Coast Guard against the Philippine resupply ship on 23 March. The Philippines Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated: “China’s continued interference with the Philippines’ routine and lawful activities in its exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is unacceptable.” 

Taiwan: Defence Ministry detects 36 Chinese aircraft near the island
On 22 March, the Taiwanese Ministry of National Defence informed that 36 Chinese military aircraft were detected near the island in 24 hours. The aircraft included 20 fighter jets, aerial unmanned vehicles and transport planes. Additionally, the ministry detected six naval ships that were operating near Taiwan. The Ministry of National Defence stated that 13 aircraft crossed the median line of the Taiwan Strait. 

Papua New Guinea: Six killed in a 6.9 magnitude earthquake
On 25 March, Strait Times reported that six people were killed and around 1000 homes were destroyed after an earthquake of 6.9 magnitude hit the Angriman village in the Angoram district of Papua New Guinea. Provincial police commander, Christopher Tamari, said that the local authorities are assessing the casualties and conducting damage assessments. Governor of the East Sepik province, Allan Bird, reported on the need for medical supplies, drinking water and temporary shelters in the affected zone. Meanwhile, Prime Minister, James Marape, approved USD 130 million in emergency funding for immediate relief efforts. According to the 2022 World Risk Index, Papua New Guinea ranks 16 in climate change and natural hazards.

South Korea: Medical professors join the doctor's strike
On 25 March, the Guardian reported on medical professors joining the trainee doctors’ protests. Several medical professors have decided to resign while others would be reducing their work hours to showcase their support. The protest is against the South Korean government’s plans to increase the admission to medical students to address the lack of doctors in rural areas. Medical Professors Association of Korea’s President, Kim Chang-soo, informed that they would limit the treatment to emergency patients. Kim said: “It is clear that increasing medical school admissions will not only ruin medical school education but cause our country’s healthcare system to collapse.” In response, the government initially announced the suspension of licenses of doctors who refuse to return to work. Later, they urged the doctors to seek a conciliatory approach and use flexible measures to solve the issue. 

Myanmar: Rebel groups intensify fighting in junta outposts
On 25 March, the Irrawaddy reported that the Arakan Army (AA) was targeting the Kyein Chaung border camp and had taken over some parts of it. It has been one of the strongholds of the junta. On 23 March, the Yan Aung Myin and the Taman Thar outposts were attacked by the AA. On 24 March, it chased down troops from the Goat Pi outpost in Maungdaw Township. Separately, on 25 March, the Kachin Independence Army (KIA) took over the Infantry Battalion 121’s headquarters in Mansi Township. Additionally, on 24 March, the KIA and other allied resistance forces captured the Lwal Khan and Dawtenkhan outposts in the Mansi Township.

South Asia
Pakistan: Suicide bombers ram into a vehicle carrying Chinese engineers
On 26 March, five Chinese engineers and one Pakistani driver were killed after a suicide bomber rammed into their convoy in northwest Pakistan. The regional police chief, Mohammad Ali Gandapur, said that the engineers were en route from Islamabad to the dam construction site in Dasu in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. No group has claimed responsibility for the attack. Chinese engineers have been assisting Pakistan with several projects as part of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) under the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). The convoy carrying engineers belonged to the China Gezhouba Group Company working on the Dasu hydropower project. The Chinese embassy in Pakistan called for an investigation into the attack to ensure the safety of its citizens. 

India: Protests in Ladakh to ensure constitutional safeguards
On 26 March, climate activist Sonam Wangchuk ended his 21-day hunger strike demanding constitutional safeguards for Ladakh. The Hindu quoted Wangchuk: “It was for 21 days. From tomorrow, women’s groups will start their fast and will be followed by youth, then monks and so on.” He urged voters to “use their ballot power very carefully this time in the interest of the nation.” He added: “Citizens are the kingmakers. We can compel a government to change their ways or change the government if that doesn’t work.” Ladakh has long been demanding statehood, a tribal status under the sixth schedule of the Indian Constitution, which allows the formation of autonomous administrative divisions with some legislative, judicial and administrative autonomy within a state. The demands were put forth in 2019 after the abrogation of A-370 and the separation of Ladakh as a Union Territory from Jammu and Kashmir.

India: Six insurgents killed in Chhattisgarh
On 27 March, the Hindu reported that at least six alleged Naxalites were killed by security forces in Bijapur in the state of Chhattisgarh. Out of the six, two were women. The gunfight took place in the forest areas of Pusbala and Chikurbhatti. The police recovered the bodies and a large number of arms and ammunition during the search operation. In 2024, around three dozen Maoists have been killed.

Central Asia, the Middle East and Africa
Lebanon: Hezbollah launches airstrike towards Israel
On 27 March, Hezbollah stated that it launched dozens of rockets towards the Kiryat Shmona town in Israel. It added that the attack was in response to Israeli strikes on Al-Habbariyeh in Lebanon, which killed seven people. According to the Israeli military, 30 rockets were launched from Lebanon. Meanwhile, Israel’s attack on Al-Habbariyeh targeted a paramedic centre affiliated with a Lebanese Sunni Muslim group. Lebanon’s Ministry of Health denounced the Israeli attack stating: “These unacceptable attacks violate international laws and norms, especially the Geneva Convention, which stresses the neutrality of health centres and health workers.” 

Syria: Airstrikes kill dozens
On 26 March, Al Jazeera quoted the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, a UK-based war monitor, that airstrikes killed 15 people in eastern Syria, including an Iranian military adviser and a member of the World Health Organization (WHO). The strikes took place in the Deir el-Zour province which borders Iraq. The strikes were not claimed by any country or militant group.

Libya: 65 migrant bodies found in graveyard
On 22 March, the International Organisation for Migration (IMO) reported the discovery of 65 bodies of migrant people who were found in a Libyan graveyard. The identity and cause of death remains unknown. It is suspected that they were smuggled through the Libyan desert and died while crossing it. Libya has been the main departure point for migrants to enter Europe through the Mediterranean Sea.

Sudan: Technocrats to run the government until elections
On 26 March, BBC reported that Sudan's ruling Sovereign Council member, General Ibrahim Jabir Ibrahim, stated that the military would form a non-political “technocratic government” until the elections are held. He added that the "technocratic government will manage the affairs of the Sudanese people and prepare for elections.” General Ibrahim's announcement came days after Sovereign Council member, General Yasir al-Atta, asserted that the military would not cede power to civilians until elections are held in the country.

Rwanda: Refuge granted to 91 Libyans
On 22 March, Rwanda granted refuge to 91 asylum seekers from Libya under a programme backed by the UN’s refugee agency, the EU, and the AU. The refugees are from South Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan, and Eritrea. Since 2019, more than 2,150 refugees have arrived in Rwanda under the program, with over 1,600 resettled abroad.

Europe and the Americas
Germany and France: Deal to produce next-generation tanks
On 22 March, the Ministries of Defence of Germany and France agreed to have an equal share in developing and producing future tanks. The agreement is to be formalised in April. France’s Nexter and Germany’s Krauss-Maffei Wegmann, known as KNDS, and Rheinmetall would be the main actors in the production. According to the ministries, the plan is to develop tanks with drones and directed-energy weapons augmenting the platform. It aims to replace Germany’s Leopard tanks and France’s Leclerc fleet by the 2040s and 2050s respectively. Additionally, KNDS would create a unit in Ukraine to produce ammunition and spare parts locally.

Belgium: Farmers protest in Brussels
On 26 March, according to Politico, the farmers’ protest in Brussels turned violent with protestors using firebombs and throwing debris at law enforcement officials. Several farmers with their tractors encircled the Place du Luxembourg outside the European Parliament, demonstrating their dissatisfaction with the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Others halted the traffic along one of the busiest routes in Rue de la Roi, set piles of hay and tyres, and threw eggs and burnt debris at police officers. A board member of European Coordination Via Campesina (ECVC), Leonardo van den Berg, noted that the “farmers are desperate.” Police used tear gas and water cannons to disperse the crowd. The Belgian Minister of Interior, Annelies Verlinden, condemned the protests, calling the “violence, arson and destruction” as “unacceptable.”

Europe: EU initiates investigations into Apple, Google and Meta
On 25 March, according to Deutsche Welle, the EU began a probe into the tech giants of Apple, Google, and Meta over “non-compliance” with the bloc’s Digital Markets Act 2022. The law ensures big tech companies provide consumers with more choices by practising fairer digital market rules. EU's internal market commissioner, Thierry Breton, expressed that the solutions adopted by Alphabet, Meta and Apple are inadequate and should “respect their obligations for a fairer and more open digital space for European citizens and businesses.” These companies are liable to pay ten per cent of their global turnover if found guilty during the investigation. The Computer and Communications Industry Association (CCIA) called the move a “worrying signal,” and that the EU was rushing into investigations. Google’s director of competition, Oliver Bethell, remarked: “We will continue to defend our approach in the coming months.”

Ecuador: Mayor shot dead in San Vicente
On 24 March, the mayor of San Vicente, Brigitte García, was shot dead and found in a car. No arrests have been made and the motive remains unclear. The incident comes after presidential candidate Fernando Villavicencio was shot dead in 2023, months before the elections. García, a member of the Citizens Revolution party, was elected as the town’s mayor in 2023. San Vicente is known for violence related to drug gangs which smuggle cocaine into the US and European markets.

El Salvador: Amnesty International warns of worsening human rights crisis
On 27 March, Amnesty International warned of a spiralling human rights crisis which emerged after President Nayib Bukele’s war on gangs. According to the human rights group, his two-year-old campaign has resulted in authorities detaining 78,00 people, 235 deaths in custody, and 327 cases of enforced disappearances. The director of Amnesty International, Ana Piquer, stated: “Reducing gang violence by replacing it with state violence cannot be a success.” She accused the government of adopting “disproportionate measures” by minimising and concealing human rights violations. In 2022, Bukele launched the war on gangs and imposed a state of emergency, eliminating the need for arrest warrants and the right to a fair trial. It led to the lowest rate of homicide in the country in the past three decades. However, the rights group warned that if the “course is not corrected, the instrumentalization of the criminal process and the establishment of a policy of torture in the prison system could persist.” Piquer explained how Bukele created a “false illusion” that he had found the “magic formula to solve the very complex problems of violence and criminality in a seemingly simple way.” Further, she claimed that the international community’s “timid” response must be replaced with a “robust, articulate and forceful” one which condemns “any model of public security that is based on human rights violations.”

Canada: Evacuation of Canadians from Haiti
On 25 March, Canada’s Minister of Foreign Affairs, Melanie Joly, stated that the government would assist in evacuating the “most vulnerable Canadians” from Haiti to the Dominican Republic, as Haiti is witnessing a surge in gang violence, political instability, and humanitarian crisis. She stated: “At present, the Dominican Republic has strict [eligibility] requirements for all those entering the country. Only Canadian citizens who have a valid Canadian passport will be eligible for this assisted departure.” On the same day, 18 citizens left Haiti via this programme. 

The US: Georgia’s state house passes the bill banning Chinese agents from purchasing land 
On 21 March, Georgia’s House of Representatives passed the bill, SB420, banning any agent from China, Cuba, Iran, North Korea, and Russia from owning farmland or any land within ten miles of a military installation, unless they have spent at least ten months within the state. The Democrats claimed that it would lead to discrimination against Americans of Asian origin and threaten national security. The state house voted 97 to 67 in favour of SB420. A Democrat of Chinese American origin, Michelle Au, stated that she has been accused of being an “agent of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), spy, a plant, un-American and a foreign asset.” She added that the bill weaponises racism. Republicans asserted that the bill does not pose any discrimination and aims to protect the country’s food supply and military from foreign adversaries. The approved bill would be considered at the state senate. Other states including Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, and Arkansas had passed similar laws amid fears of growing Chinese espionage. 

This Week in History
"This Week in History" is a new column that examines historical events, consequences, legacies and their current relevance. We hope this column will provide an opportunity to build a young team that can analyze current events from a historical perspective and vice versa.

22 March 1765: The British Parliament passes the Stamp Act
LS Hareesh

On 22 March 1765, the British Parliament passed the Stamp Act.

The Stamp Act, its intentions and implications
This legislation introduced a tax on various papers, documents, and playing cards to generate revenue to cover the expenses of British troops stationed in the colonies during the Seven Years' War. The tax was directly imposed by the British government, bypassing the colonial legislatures and causing outrage among the colonists who believed in the principle of "no taxation without representation." 

The act's passage signified a turning point in the relationship between the American colonies and the British Empire. The Stamp Act was particularly burdensome for the colonists as it required payment in British sterling, which was scarce in the colonies. This reliance on British merchants or banks for currency exchange further reinforced their economic dependence on Britain. 

The Stamp Act had significant implications for the legal system in the colonies. Accused individuals could be prosecuted in Vice-Admiralty Courts, which lacked juries and could be held anywhere within the British Empire. This denial of the right to trial by jury infuriated the colonists as it violated their fundamental rights and subjected them to arbitrary justice.

Responses to the Stamp Act
In response to the Stamp Act, the colonists organized various forms of opposition. Representatives from nine colonies met in New York City in October 1765, establishing the Stamp Act Congress. This congress marked the first united action by the colonies, asserting that while Parliament had the right to regulate colonial trade, it lacked the power to tax the colonies without their representation.  The Stamp Act Congress issued a petition to the king and Parliament, demanding the repeal of the act, which served as a clear assertion of colonial rights in opposition to British taxation.

Although the Stamp Act took effect on 1 November 1 1765, it faced widespread resistance and boycotts throughout the colonies. Merchants coordinated non-importation agreements, refusing to import British goods, and significantly impacting British trade. Prominent figures like Samuel Adams and John Hancock led the Sons of Liberty, a secret society that orchestrated protests, demonstrations, and acts of civil disobedience against stamp distributors. The pressure faced by the distributors led many to resign, thwarting the enforcement of the tax.

The colonial resistance and economic repercussions of the boycotts compelled the British government to reconsider its position on the Stamp Act. Consequently, in March 1766, Parliament repealed the act, partially due to pressure from London merchants who also suffered from the colonial boycotts. However, Parliament concurrently issued the Declaratory Act, which reaffirmed its absolute legislative power over the colonies and its authority to pass laws binding them "in all cases whatsoever." This act served as a warning to the colonists that while the Stamp Act was revoked, British authority and control over the colonies persisted.

Fallouts of the Stamp Act
The Stamp Act crisis had far-reaching effects on the relationship between the colonies and Britain. It fueled anti-British sentiment, fostered greater colonial unity, and instilled a determination to resist unjust taxation and the infringement of colonial rights. The events surrounding the Stamp Act set the stage for future rebellion and ultimately contributed to the outbreak of the American Revolution a decade later.

About the authors
Padmashree Anandhan and Anu Maria Joseph are Research Associates at NIAS. Femy Francis, Dhriti Mukherjee, Akhil Ajith and Shamini Velayutham are Research Assistants at NIAS. Vetriselvi Baskaran, Navinan GV, and Narmatha S are Postgraduate Students at the University of Madras. Nuha Aamina, Rosemary Kurian, and Alka Bala are Undergraduate Students at St Joseph’s University, Bangalore. LS Hareesh is a PhD Scholar at the Department of History, Loyola College, Chennai.

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