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STIR Team
7 September 2021 |
7 September 2021, Vol. 1, No. 8
Cover Story
By Jeshil Samuel
On 27 August, the US used a drone strike to kill two high profile Islamic State Khorasan (IS-K) operatives as retaliation against the suicide bombing in the Hamid Karzai International Airport that killed 169 Afghans and 13 American soldiers. The drone strike was precise and was reported to have no known civilian casualties. Many scholars have agreed that the US ending their combat mission in Afghanistan would put Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) at the forefront of future US operations in the region.
On 25 August, drone delivery company Wing (part of the Alphabet Group) announced that it was on the verge of successfully completing 100,000 customer deliveries in the Australian suburbs. The company has achieved this milestone within a span of two years and has proved that the commercial applications for drones can be easily integrated even in highly populated suburbs. Though landing spaces are an issue, the company has plans to expand its operations in highly populated metropolitan cities across Europe and Asia.
I
The History behind Drones
According to a publication by the University of Ohio, “unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), or drones, are aircraft that can be controlled remotely by a pilot, or by pre-programmed plans or automation systems that enable them to fly autonomously”. Though the hype for drone technology has been around since the late 1950s, the technology itself was founded earlier in 1917 during World War 1. The British and the Americans were the first to test small radio-controlled aircrafts. However, neither of the two countries used the aircrafts during the war. It was during the interwar period that more research and development went into unmanned aircrafts. During World War II, the US launched Operation Anvil which allowed the Navy to remotely control B-24 bombers filled with explosives. However, it is widely believed that in 1935, when the British produced the DH.82B Queen Bee (a radio-controlled aircraft used for training), was when the term “drone” started being used.
Moving to 1955, the Vietnam War was one of the first large-scale combat missions that extensively used drones for surveillance and as decoys. It was during this time that drones gained the capability to fire missiles at fixed targets and carry objects. After the Vietnam War, other countries began noticing the importance of drones and started investing heavily in drone manufacturing and development. Between the 1960s and the early 2000s, drones started becoming better by carrying heavier payloads at higher altitudes and even using solar panels to reduce fuel consumption.
After the 9/11 attacks, the US got into extensive combat missions in Afghanistan and Iraq and it was during this period that the US changed the perception of drones changed completely. The implementation of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in UAVs allowed them to fly extensively without any human control, and the addition of laser-guided missile systems allowed for a more precise payload delivery. Coveting the power and stealthiness of drones, many countries from the Middle East, East Asia, and Eastern Europe began importing drones for exorbitant prices and the global drone industry began expanding extensively. In 2018, the global drone market was worth nearly 20 billion USD and it is estimated that the industry would reach 42.8 billion USD by 2025.
(Ohio University, 7 Pros and Cons of Drones and Unmanned Ariel Vehicles, 11 May 2021, ohio.edu)
II
Types and Functions
The rapid pace of technological advancements has created different categories of drones with their own set of functions and specialities. At present, drones can be divided into 14 different categories based on their build and functionality, and 5 different categories based on their weight. Let’s take a brief look at the main categories and the purposes they serve. (Please find table in the PDF)
III
Why do states want drones?
First, casualty aversion. One of the primary reasons why drones have been sought after since World War 1 is to reduce casualties in war. Countries today follow a similar principle that allows them to take any and all measures to minimize the death toll on their side. According to Frank Sauer and Niklas Schörnig, “Drones are uniquely attractive to democracies because they allow elected officials to wage wars without the potential adverse consequences that would come from losing soldiers in battle”. Countries in hostile environments with relatively smaller armies (such as Israel) tend to rely heavily on drones for the same reason. And according to Michael C. Horowitz, “the ability of drones to loiter for long periods of time over a target means that the attacker can gain better intelligence on the target and the surrounding area, and strike with better accuracy. This reduces the risk of civilian casualties”.
Second, to reduce military spending. Though drones can be some of the most expensive military weapons or tools to acquire or build, they do not command the same budgets as a ground invasion or attack. An analysisconducted in 2019 by Daniel Burg and Paul Scharre found that the American Navy could potentially save 131.5 billion USD in the future by heavily relying on unmanned FNAs (Future Naval Aircrafts). The competition within the drone industry has even allowed manufacturers such as Kratos, to produce relatively cheaper target drones that offer the same functionality as the expensive ones. According to Keith Mahler, “drones also can collect information for analysis in real-time, reducing the need for manual data capture and reporting”. Finally, the reusability and longevity of drones are some of the most important factors that allow governments to reduce military spending.
Third, power and prestige. According to Emily Goldman and Leslie Eliason, “for neorealists, states are like firms, emulate successful innovations of others out of fear of the disadvantages that arise from being less competitively organized and equipped”. This perfectly sums up why countries are always in a hurry to procure the latest drones available in the market. If a country does not plan on procuring new drones, then it is perceived that they are inherently weaker compared to the ones who have them. Another binding factor that pushes governments to procure drones is status and prestige. As Niklas Schornig rightly points out, “here, the question becomes not one of strategic advantage but of the symbolic nature of specific weapon systems”. Drones procured from countries like the US, Turkey and Israel are considered to be prestigious possessions by developing countries, and this mentality indirectly pushes other developing countries in the region to procure them as well.
Fourth, counterterrorism and counterinsurgency. From Somalia to Pakistan, the US popularised the use of drones to fight terrorism through their War on Terror campaign. This trend quickly spread as drones prevented ground troops from becoming victims to ambushes, mines, and suicide bombings orchestrated by militant groups. The ability to collect data and inflict damage simultaneously provides drones with time windows that simply cannot be found during physical counterterrorism missions. Another key factor that makes drones excellent in counterterrorism and counterinsurgency operations is the psychological impact they have on militants. Based on data from US drone strikes in Pakistan between 2007 and 2011, researchers Johnston and Sarbahi were able to conclude that, “the usage of drones reduced the risk of subsequent terrorist attacks, as well as the targeting of tribal elders by militant groups”. Professor Shah states that “there is also evidence that drone strikes do not broadly cause blowback by generating more militant group recruitment”. Therefore, we can safely assume that once militants are aware that drones are present in their region, the fear of being targeted stunts the growth of their operations.
Fifth, unconfined intelligence gathering. Earlier this year, US-based aeronautics firm, General Atomics Aeronautical Systems announced that the new Avenger drones would have advanced sensor pods that would not only allow the drones to hide from radar but also from infrared sensors. With new innovations constantly making drones stealthier, it makes them very difficult to detect and destroy. This ability to remain stealthy coupled with their range have made drones one of the go-to forms of cross-border intelligence gathering for state actors. Countries do not have to worry about being caught spying on another country anymore, and since the data sent from the drone is heavily encrypted, countries don’t have to worry about their drones getting hacked either. Even international organizations such as the United Nations that have long opposed intrusive intelligence gathering, have been pushed to use UAVs extensively during their peacekeeping missions in notoriously unstable regions (such as Mali).
(James Igoe Walsh & Marcus Schulzke, Drones and Support for the Use of Force, 2018, JSTOR; Michael C. Horowitz, Do Emerging Military Technologies Matter for International Politics, May 2020, ResearchGate; Keith Mahler, Agencies Could Stretch Budgets by Embracing Drones, 24 May 2019, Nextgov.com; Emily O. Goldman & Leslie C. Eliason, The Diffusion of Military Technology and Ideas, 2003, Google Books; Niklas Schornig, Liberal Preferences as an Explanation for Technology Choices, The Case of Military Robots as a Solution to the West’s Casualty Aversion, July 2014, ResearchGate)
IV
Why are drones controversial?
First, a lack of clarity under International Humanitarian Law (IHL). IHL plays a crucial role in maintaining human rights during armed conflicts throughout the world. However, the international community is yet to ratify any treaty or agreement that would give international judicial bodies such as the International Court of Justice the power to punish state actors who misuse UAVs during combat. As of now, drones are not considered as weapons under the IHL but merely as platforms that house weapons. According to Stefan Oeter, “the drone as a military object is clearly a legitimate military target, but only the guided munitions which are carried and directed to their targets by the drones are the object of regulation of the norms of IHL concerning means and methods of warfare”. With the increasing use of kamikaze drones by state and armed non-state actors, the definition of UAVs being a weapons platform becomes unclear since kamikaze drones are armed drones that self-destruct on impact. Moreover, the principles of distinction (states should engage with only military targets), proportionality (collateral damage must be assessed and minimal) and the prohibition of indiscriminate attacks that are enforced by the IHL are frequently broken by drone strikes conducted by countries such as the US, Israel and Turkey.
Second, the question of collateral damage. Both people and property are considered collateral damage if they are harmed unintentionally during conflict. Under international law, states are allowed to conduct targeted strikes only after a proper assessment of the collateral involved is carried out. After the assessment, states are required to take the course of action that demands comparatively minimal collateral damage. However, the question of how much damage is considered to be minimal is still a huge debate. When states use drone strikes to eliminate potential threats, the question of collateral damage becomes secondary to national security. The recent US drone strike in Kabul that killed ten members of a family in order to stop a suspected ISIS-K suicide bomber is a good example of this as the US later admitted that it was a defensive strike carried out to prevent an imminent threat to the Hamid Karzai International Airport. Despite the advancements in predictive analytics and machine learning, drones still cause collateral damages that go unaddressed.
Third, the lack of accountability and transparency. According to Emily Crawford, “the remote nature of drone attacks can (and has been) directly connected to indiscriminate attacks against both military and civilian targets”. Governments do not specify the reason as to why a certain individual or group is being monitored or targeted, they only inform the public after a drone strike has been executed successfully. This lack of transparency combined with the machine learning algorithms in Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) could potentially lead to a particular group of people being targeted based on past experience. With drones gradually becoming fully autonomous, the need for human intervention becomes lesser, and this poses serious questions of accountability.
Fourth, issues of privacy. In a time where privacy has become a basic necessity, governments around the world have created strict rules and regulations governing the usage of commercial drones. However, governments have not created equally stringent laws that restrict military or law enforcement drones from spying on their own citizens. Gregory McNeal states that, “privacy advocates contend that with drones, the government will be able to engage in widespread pervasive surveillance because drones are cheaper to operate than their manned counterparts. Another factor that raises serious concerns is the ability of drones to remain stealthy. One would never know if they are being spied upon or not, and even worse, they would not be able to do much even if they knew. With advanced reconnaissance drones being able to intercept and reroute cell phone signals mid-air, the possibilities of drones invading an individual’s privacy are increasing day-by-day.
Fifth, the psychological impacts. Research conducted by the Global Law Clinic and International Human Rights and Conflict Resolution Clinic on the adverse effects of US drone attacks in Pakistan summarised: “Their (drones) presence terrorizes men, women, and children, giving rise to anxiety and psychological trauma among civilian communities”. The fear of becoming victim to a drone attack not only pushes civilians in conflict-ridden regions to face traumatic experiences, but also creates a feeling of hatred towards the attackers. This feeling of hatred is counterproductive if the attacker’s intent is to liberalise or rescue the civilians from a tyrannous regime.
Ironically, even counter-drone technology that is supposed to give civilians peace of mind ends up disrupting their normal lives significantly. According to a report by the Open Briefing group, “kinetic weapons (missiles, rockets or bullets) can be very effective, but present considerable risks of collateral damage if used in urban civilian areas” since the falling debris from the kinetic measures poses serious public safety concerns.
(Patrick B. Johnston & Anoop K. Sarbahi, The Impact of US Drone Strikes on Terrorism in Pakistan, June 2016, Oxford Academic; Aqil Shah, Do U.S. Drone Strikes Cause Blowback? Evidence from Pakistan and Beyond, 1 May 2018, MIT Press Direct; Stefan Oeter, Armed Drones: Legal Issues from an International Law Perspective, 2014, Ethics and Armed Forces; Emily Crawford, The Principle of Distinction and Remote Warfare, May 2016, Sydney Law School; Gregory McNeal, Drones and aerial surveillance: Considerations for legislatures, November 2014, Brookings; IHRCRC & GLC, Living under Drones, September 2012, livingunderdrones.org; Emily Crawford, The Principle of Distinction and Remote Warfare, May 2016, Sydney Law School; Gregory McNeal, Drones and aerial surveillance: Considerations for legislatures, November 2014, Brookings; IHRCRC & GLC, Living under Drones, September 2012, livingunderdrones.org)
V
The Future of Drones
Drones are here to stay and as their numbers grow exponentially, so do the environmental concerns they cause to birds and the security risks they create for states. But despite the negative impacts, the public support for public safety monitoring and scientific research uses of drones are high.
Commercially, drones could soon be seen in a wide variety of applications such as disease control, industrial inspections, personal transportation, space exploration and home security. Another pertinent application for drones could be wildlife conservation since they can track down or monitor poaching activities far better than the fixed cameras in wildlife reserves. Drones however, would see the most use in the retail delivery market. Companies like Amazon have been using drones for contactless deliveries even before the pandemic hit, and the pandemic has only pushed numerous other businesses to integrate drone delivery systems. Intergovernmental organizations such as UNICEF have also started experimenting with drones in vaccine delivery/transport, for improved connectivity in hard-to-reach communities, aerial imaging for better preparedness, and response to emergencies in developing countries.
Governments, on the other hand, would certainly be investing more in anti-drone technology in the future due to the increasing threats posed by drones. Countries such as the US and Israel have already invested in developing and using high-energy lasers to shoot down drones. Governments would also concentrate on the research and development of unmanned aircrafts assisting manned aircrafts. The Hindustan Aeronautics Limited’s CAT (Combined Air Training) project is a good example of this, as the project would allow manned aircrafts to deploy and control UAVs during cross-border missions. On the constructive side of things, the integration of drone delivery systems with existing healthcare systems would also revolutionize public healthcare, especially in developing countries.
The increasing usage of drones by armed non-state actors is a question that needs to be focused on. The Middle East in particular has seen a massive surge in terror attacks carried out through drones in the last five years, and this is expected to increase in the foreseeable future. Militant groups such as Hamas, Hezbollah, and Houthis procure armed drones from state actors like Iran, and this relationship between states and their proxies would lead to an increase in drone attacks in the future if not addressed immediately. International law has to evolve with the changing times and hold state actors responsible for their usage of UAVs and UASs. Until then, drones would be the most desired yet despised piece of technology for state and non-state actors alike.
( Open Briefing, The Hostile use of Drones by Non-State Actors against British targets, January 2016, Remote Control Project)
In Brief
By Akriti Sharma and Lokendra Sharma
Hurricane Ida: Effective technology ensured better forecast and preparedness
On 29 July, hurricane Ida, a category 4 storm made landfall near Port Fourchon in Louisiana with maximum sustained winds of 150 mph and a minimum central pressure of 930 mb. It again made a second landfall as a category 4 storm in the southwest of Galliano with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph and a minimum central pressure of 935 mb. Due to rapid intensification, Ida turned from a weak storm to severe Category 4 storm. The criterion for classification of a storm in the rapid intensification category is when the speed of its sustained winds increases by at least 35 mph within 24 hours. Ida intensified 85-150 mph in merely 24 hours.
The scientists had predicted the severity of the hurricane beforehand. The ocean temperatures are monitored daily through satellites especially during the summer months. They used EXpendable BathyThermographs (XBTs); an instrument used to measure temperature profile of the upper regions of the ocean. It descends about 400-1500 metres down the upper surface of the ocean and sends back the data regarding the temperature and the salinity of the ocean. A swirling pool of water often referees to as eddy was warm up to 480 feet below the surface. The excessive heat of the eddy fueled the severity of the hurricane. XBTs were first deployed in the North Atlantic Ocean in the 1960s. They are the most cost-efficient technology to record the temperature gradient of the ocean. However, a major impediment to predict the rapid intensification is the inability of science to predict how deep the layer of the hot water is. XBTs can only predict the surface temperature of the ocean.
Additionally, the US Geological Survey (USGS) scientists used the storm-tide sensors to predict the depth and duration of the storm. The scientists deployed 23 sensors on the coasts of Louisiana and Mississippi. The sensors facilitate collection of data that helps forecast the storm surge. It helps in better preparedness from the storms. The sensors can guide the evacuation plans and ensure public safety. After the landfall of Ida as Category 4 storm and heavy flooding, the USGS crews collected the sensors to improve coastal change forecast and develop storm surge models. The use of technology in forecasting and preparedness of the hurricanes is huge. In 2015, hurricane Katrina took about 1800 lives on the Gulf of Mexico, however, after sixteen years, Ida has been managed relatively efficiently.
(Nick Shay,Hurricane Ida turned into a monster thanks to a giant warm patch in the Gulf of Mexico – here’s what happened, The Conversation, 1 September2021)(Robin Lloyd, How Hurricane Ida Got So Big So Fast - Scientific American, Scientific American, 31 August 2021)(USGS, USGS Deploying Storm-tide Sensors in Louisiana, Mississippi in Advance of Hurricane Ida, 27 August 2021)
A new variant of SARS-CoV-2 rekindles fears
On 30 August, the WHO classified ‘Mu’ (B.1.621) as a Variant of Interest (VOI). First found in Colombia in January 2021, Mu has since spread across the United States; close to 39 countries have reported it. With this classification, Mu joins Eta, Iota , Kappa and Lambda as VOI.
SARS-CoV-2, like other viruses, undergoes mutation with time. While some mutations may produce variants with less virulence and/or less transmissibility, it may also lead to vice versa. As these variants have a major epidemiological impact and can also affect the effectiveness of vaccination, they are continuously tracked by global and national public health bodies through genome sequencing (which is being done at an unprecedented level). While variants which have a potential to cause harm are classified as VOI, more serious ones like the Delta (B.1.617.2) are classified as Variants of Concern (VOC). Other VOCs classified by the WHO are Alpha, Beta and Gamma.
On 31 August, the WHO’s weekly epidemiological update on COVID-19 noted that the “Mu variant has a constellation of mutations that indicate potential properties of immune escape.” However, it added that this “needs to be confirmed by further studies.” Similarly, more evidence would be needed to determine the variant’s virulence and transmissibility. It is currently more prevalent in South America (Colombia and Ecuador) and nothing definitive is known about its virulence and transmissibility. It has nevertheless rekindled fears about a devastating new wave similar to one triggered by the Delta variant this year, which was particularly pronounced in India during April-June 2021. That the variant has been lurking around since January 2021 while Delta became the dominant variant is a comforting thing. However, this may change and the variant would have to be watched closely. As this is not the last variant, and other variants may emerge in future, it is all the more imperative to ramp up the pace of vaccination with a special emphasis on equity and last mile delivery.
(Weekly epidemiological update on COVID-19 - 31 August 2021, WHO, Edition 55, 31 August 2021; Tracking SARS-CoV-2 variants, WHO; Paul Griffin, Everything you need to know about the Mu COVID-19 variant, World Economic Forum, 3 September 2021)
(Please click the PDF to read more)
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Padmashree Anandhan
Aashish Ganeshan
Gauri Gupta
GP Team
Brighty Ann Sarah and R Preetha
Anu Maria Joseph
Padmashree Anandhan
Abhiruchi Chowdhury
Fleur Elizabeth Philip
Vani Vyshnavi Jupudi
R Preetha and Brighty Ann Sarah
R Preetha
Nuha Aamina
GP Team
Abhishiktha S Kumar
Emma Rose Boby
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Anu Maria Joseph
C Shraddha
Femy Francis
C Shraddha
Esther Gamako Zugwai
Vani Vyshnavi Jupudi
Anu Maria Joseph
Anu Maria Joseph
Anu Maria Joseph
Bibhu Prasad Routray
Nova Karun K
Nuha Aamina
IPRI Team
Suchitra Jakkala
Padmashree Anandhan
Santhiya M
Brighty Ann Sarah
C Shraddha
GP Team
Vaneeta
Vaneeta
D Suba Chandran
IPRI Team
C Shraddha
D Suba Chandran
Abhiruchi Chowdhury
GP Team
Nuha Aamina
D Suba Chandran
IPRI Team
Rohini Reenum
Rohini Reenum
South Asia Brief Team
Souparno Rakshit, Emma Rose Boby and Souparnika Suresh
GP Team
South Asia Brief Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Trisha Roy
IPRI Team
Ayan Datta
Anu Maria Joseph
Ayan Datta
Anu Maria Joseph
Ayan Datta
Anu Maria Joseph
South Asia Brief Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Padmashree Anandhan
Abhiruchi Chowdhury
Samruddhi Pathak
Sayeka Ghosh
Neha Tresa George
IPRI Team
Kumari Krishna
C Shraddha
Kumari Krishna
Vaneeta
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
Vaneeta
Ayan Datta
Anu Maria Joseph
Anu Maria Joseph
Ayan Datta
GP Team
Nupur Priya
IPRI Team
Ayan Datta
C Shraddha, Vaishak Sreekumar, Kumari Krishna, Nova Karun K
IPRI Team
GP Team
PR Team
IPRI Team
Nupur Priya
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Prajwal TV
Kavithasri M
IPRI Team
Ashna Pathak & Surangana Rajya Laxmi Rana
Anu Maria Joseph
Ayan Datta
Samruddhi Pathak
Femy Francis
IPRI Team
Abhiruchi Chowdhury
GP Team
Nuha Aamina
Rohini Reenum
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Ayan Datta
S Shaji
Vetriselvi Baskaran
Anu Maria Joseph
Ayan Datta
Advik S Mohan
GP Team
Advik S Mohan
Advik S Mohan
IPRI Team
Rohit Paswan
Padmashree Anandhan
Ayan Datta
Shreya Jagadeesan
Bishwarupa Kar
Saritha VK & Mahesh Mohan
Sruthy
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
Advik S Mohan
GP Team
Advik S Mohan
Neha Tresa George
IPRI Team
Samruddhi Pathak
Neha Tresa George
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
Ayan Datta
Vetriselvi Baskaran
Sayeka Ghosh
GP Team
Neha Tresa George
Advik S Mohan
Samruddhi Pathak
Padmashree Anandhan
Ramya B
Sim V
Pummy Lathigara
Ronakk Tijoriwala
Arya Madhavan S
Ankita Chakra
Rianne Rajath P
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Anu Maria Joseph
Ayan Datta
Anu Maria Joseph
Vetriselvi Baskaran
GP Team
Swagathi Annabel
Bishwarupa Kar
Prajwal T V
Ayush Bhattacharjee
Shifa Moideen
IPRI Team
Vetriselvi Baskaran
L S Hareesh
Mugdha Chaturvedi
Ken B Varghese
Ayan Datta
Vaneeta
Pummy Lathigara
Ms Ramya
Nivetha B
Leivon Victor Lamkang
Siddhima M
Pranesh Selvaraj
Dhriti Mukherjee
GP Team
Nandini Khandelwal
Prajwal T V
Ramya B
Ronakk Tijoriwala
Govind Anoop
Shreya Jagadeesan
Rohit Paswan
Nupur Priya
Neha Tresa George
Shilpa Joseph
Vetriselvi Baskaran
Vetriselvi Baskaran
IPRI Team
Dhriti Mukherjee
Dhriti Mukherjee
Rohini Reenum
GP Team
Shilpa Jospeh
Samruddhi Pathak
Sayeka Ghosh
Govind Anoop
Ayan Datta
Vetriselvi Baskaran
Neha Tresa George
Padmashree Anandhan
Diya Madhavan
GP Team
Vetriselvi Baskaran
Vaneeta
Dhriti Mukherjee
Ashwini Barla
Ayan Datta
Karthik Manoharan
Ramya B
Prajwal T V
IPRI Team
GP Team
Vaneeta
Sayeka Ghosh
Ayan Datta
Karthik Manoharan
Prajwal TV
Mayank Bharti
Ronakk Tijoriwala
Deepika Seervi
Ayan Datta & Sayeka Ghosh
Vetriselvi Baskaran
Anu Maria Joseph
Anu Maria Joseph
Vetriselvi Baskaran
Anu Maria Joseph
Jerry Franklin A
Anu Maria Joseph
Anu Maria Joseph
IPRI Team
Dhriti Mukherjee
Prajwal T V
Rohini Reenum
GP Team
IPRI Team
Vetriselvi Baskaran
Dhriti Mukherjee
IPRI Team
Anu Maria Joseph
Padmashree Anandhan
Ronakk Tijoriwala
Neha Tresa George
Shilpa Joseph and Ken Varghese
IPRI Team
Femy Francis
IPRI Team
Dhriti Mukherjee
Torunika Roy
GP Team
LS Hareesh
IPRI Team
Femy Francis
Dhriti Mukherjee
IPRI Team
Mugdha Chaturvedi
Dhriti Mukherjee
By young scholars of NIAS Course on Global Politics: Contemporary World Order and Theories. Compiled by Sayeka Ghosh.
Akhil Ajith
By the NIAS-IPRI Course scholars on Contemporary Conflicts, Peace Processes, Theories and Thinkers. Compiled by Ayan Datta.
Vaneeta
Kavithasri M
Mallika Joseph
Rohini Reenum
Padmashree Anandhan
Tiara Marie Warjri
GP Team
Akhil Ajith
Femy Francis
Femy Francis
Akhil Ajith
Akhil Ajith
Dhriti Mukherjee
IPRI Team
D Suba Chandran
Padmashree Anandhan
Femy Francis
Akhil Ajith
Dhriti Mukherjee
Rohini Reenum
GP Team
Dhriti Mukherjee
D Suba Chandran
Rohini Reenum
Dhriti Mukherjee
NIAS South Asia Team
NIAS South Asia Team
Devi Chandana M
Alka Bala
D Suba Chandran
Rohini Reenum
Dhriti Mukherjee
Rohini Reenum
Dhriti Mukherjee
GP Team
IPRI Team
Lakshmi Karlekar
GP Team
Sayeka Ghosh
IPRI Team
Karthik Manoharan
Nupur Priya
GP Team
Dhriti Mukherjee
Femy Francis
IPRI Team
Vaneeta
Arya Prasad
Sayeka Ghosh
Ramya B
Alka Bala
GP Team
Diya Madhavan
IPRI Team
GP Team
Femy Francis
IPRI Team
Ramya B
NIAS South Asia Team
Devi Chandana M
Padmashree Anandhan
Rosemary Kurian
Alka Bala
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
T C A Raghavan
IPRI Team
Karthik Manoharan
Rosemary Kurian
NIAS Africa Team
Manasa G
GP Team
IPRI Team
D Rohan Kumar
Sivasubramanian K
LS Hareesh
Ramya B
GP Team
NIAS South Asia Team
NIAS South Asia Team
NIAS Africa Team
NIAS Africa Team
Asanga Abeyagoonasekera
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
NIAS South Asia Team
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
NIAS Latin America Team
NIAS South Asia Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
Jerry Franklin A
GP Team
IPRI Team
Padmashree Anandhan, Femy Francis, Rohini Reenum, Akriti Sharma, Akhil Ajith, Shamini Velayutham and Anu Maria Joseph
Alka Bala
IPRI Team
Bibhu Prasad Routray
Narmatha S and Anu Maria Jospeh
Alka Bala
Rosemary Kurian
IPRI Team
CEAP Team
GP Team
Femy Francis
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
CEAP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Anu Maria Joseph
GP team
Hoimi Mukherjee
Richa Chandola
Aprajita Kashyap
Shreya Pandey
Binod Khanal
Rishika Yadav
Padmashree Anandhan
Anu Maria Joseph
Nuha Aamina
Alka Bala
Sayani Rana
Ashok Alex Luke
Annem Naga Bindhu Madhuri
Femy Francis
Amit Gupta
Kuri Sravan Kumar
Yogeshwari S
Abhishek Ranjan
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Nithyashree RB
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Anu Maria Joseph
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
Jerry Franklin A
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
PR Team
Amit Gupta
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Sneha Surendran
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Akhil Ajith
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Femy Francis
Femy Francis
Femy Francis
Femy Francis
Prerana P
CR Team
NIAS Africa Team
Nithyashree RB
Jerry Franklin
GP Team
IPRI Team
PR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Nithyashree RB
PR Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Padmashree Anandhan
Rishika Yadav
Sreeja JS
Annem Naga Bindhu Madhuri
Yogeswari S
GP Team
IPRI Team
PR Team
PR Team
Prof Joyati Bhattacharya
IPRI Team
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
Anu Maria Joseph
Jerry Franklin A
IPRI Team
Dhriti Mukherjee
PR Team
Femy Francis
Shamini Velayutham
Dhriti Mukherjee
Ankit Singh
Sneha Surendran
PR Team
PR Team
PR Team
PR Team
NIAS Africa Team
Anu Maria Joseph
Feben Itty
Genesy B
Sreeja JS
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Sneha Surendran
Heribert Dieter
IPRI Team
Nithyashree RB
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Sneha Surendran
Rishika Yadav
Padmashree Anandhan
NIAS Africa Team
Jerry Franklin A
Sneha Surendran
Nithyashree RB
Rishika Yadav
GP Team
IPRI Team
Anu Maria Joseph
Jerry Franklin A
NIAS Africa Team
Lakshmi Parimala H
GP Team
Rishika Yadav
IPRI Team
D Suba Chandran
GP Team
Indrani Talukdar
IPRI Team
S Shaji
Jerry Franklin A
Sneha Surendran
NIAS Africa Team
Himani Pant
Ankita Dutta
D. Suba Chandran
Ankit Singh
Sneha Surendran
IPRI Team
Rubina Pradhan
Medini Hegde
Ramya Balasubramanian
Bibhu Prasad Routray
Nithyashree RB
Bibhu Prasad Routray
Devjyoti Saha
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
Jerry Franklin A
Anu Maria Joseph
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
Lakshmi Parimala
GP Team
IPRI Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Sneha Surendran
GP Team
Padmashree Anandhan
IPRI Team
Rishika Yadav, Sneha Surendran, Sandra D Costa, Ryan Marcus, Prerana P and Nithyashree RB
GP Team
Harini Madhusudan, Rishika Yada, Sneha Surendran, Prerana P, Sreeja JS and Padmashree Anandhan
GP Team
IPRI Team
Bibhu Prasad Routray
NIAS Africa Team
Anu Maria Joseph
Jerry Franklin
GP Team
IPRI Team
Bibhu Prasad Routray
NIAS Africa Team
Jerry Franklin
Anu Maria Joseph
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Jerry Franklin
Anu Maria Joseph
Akshaya S
GP Team
Rishika Yadav, Sreeja JS, Nithyashree RB, and Melvin George
Nithyashree RB
Sreeja JS
Rishika Yadav
Rishika Yadav and Nityashree RB
Padmashree Anandhan
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Devjyoti Saha
Indrani Talukdar
Debangana Chatterjee
Kasturi Chatterjee
Ankita Dutta
Amrita Purkayastha
GP Team
Lakshmi Parimala H
Amit Gupta
GP Team
GP Team
Rishika Yadav
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
Padmashree Anandhan
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Himani Pant
Sourina Bej
IPRI Team
GP Team
Indrani Talukdar
Padmashree Anandhan
Padmashree Anandhan
D Suba Chandran
D Suba Chandran
Bhoomika Sesharaj
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
D Suba Chandran
NIAS Africa Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
Avishka Ashok
Madhura Mahesh
Padmashree Anandhan
Ankit Singh
Riya Itisha Ekka
Apoorva Sudhakar
Sayani Rana
Anu Maria Joseph
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Sethuraman Nadarajan
Avishka Ashok
IPRI Team
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
Allen Joe Mathew, Sayani Rana, Joel Jacob
Sethuraman Nadarajan
Ankit Singh
Bhoomika Sesharaj
Madhura Mahesh
Harini Madhusudan
Avishka Ashok
Akriti Sharma
Padmashree Anandhan
Poulomi Mondal
Mohaimeen Khan
Padmashree Anandhan
Madhura Mahesh
Padmashree Anandhan
Janardhan G
Sapna Elsa Abraham
Avishka Ashok
Anu Maria Joseph
Apoorva Sudhakar
Rashmi BR
Kaviyadharshini A
Avishka Ashok
Chrishari de Alwis Gunasekare
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
NIAS Africa Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Vignesh Ram
Vignesh Ram
Sai Pranav
Harini Madhusudan, Rishma Banerjee, Padmashree Anandhan, Ashwin Immanuel Dhanabalan, and Avishka Ashok
Sourina Bej
Padmashree Anandhan and Rishma Banerjee
Mathew Sonu Simon
Sourina Bej
Rashmi BR and Akriti Sharma
Rashmi Ramesh
Rishma Banerjee
Sai Pranav
Padmashree Anandhan
Emmanuel Selva Royan
Padmashree Anandhan
Rishma Banerjee
Ashwin Immanuel Dhanabalan
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
Avishka Ashok
Angelin Archana
Shreya Upadhyay
Uma Purushothaman
Debangana Chatterjee
Himani Pant
Sethuraman Nadarajan
Avishka Ashok
GP Team
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Sourina Bej
Padmashree Anandhan
Padmashree Anandhan
Devjyoti Saha
Dr Beena
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
NIAS Africa Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Sourina Bej
GP Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Padmashree Anandhan
NIAS Africa Team
NIAS Africa Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
STIR Team
GP Team
Padmashree Anandhan
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
Padmashree Anandhan
NIAS Africa Team
Avishka Ashok
NIAS Africa Team
STIR Team
STIR Team
STIR Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Emmanuel Selva Royan
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
STIR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Rishma Banerjee
Rashmi Ramesh
Sourina Bej
S Shaji
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
STIR Team
NIAS Africa Team
STIR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Naina Singh
GP Team
Amit Gupta
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
STIR Team
STIR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
Anu Maria Joseph
Ashwin Immanuel Dhanabalan
Joeana Cera Matthews
Avishka Ashok
Nireekshan Bollimpalli
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
PR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Joeana Cera Matthews
Ashwin Immanuel Dhanabalan
IPRI Team
STIR Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Porkkodi Ganeshpandian and Angkuran Dey
Ashwin Immanuel Dhanabalan
Mohamad Aseel Ummer
IPRI Team
STIR Team
Shalini Balaiah
Angelin Archana
Prakash Panneerselvam
N Jayaram
S Shaji
GP Team
Amit Gupta
IPRI Team
GP Team
Apoorva Sudhakar
Joeana Cera Matthews
Padmashree Anandhan
Harini Madhusudan
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Sneha M
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
STIR Team
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
D. Suba Chandran
Ankit Singh
Ankit Singh
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Sneha M
D. Suba Chandran
Ankit Singh
D. Suba Chandran
Sneha M
Ankit Singh
Apoorva Sudhakar
Ankit Singh
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Sneha M
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Harshita Rathore
GP Team
Apoorva Sudhakar
Ankit Singh
Ankit Singh
Sneha M
Vishnu Prasad
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Ankit Singh
Apoorva Sudhakar
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Ankit Singh
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Vaishnavi Iyer
Joeana Cera Matthews
Sneha M
D. Suba Chandran
Ankit Singh
Apoorva Sudhakar
Ankit Singh
STIR Team
GP Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Joeana Cera Matthews
Joeana Cera Matthews
Harini Madhusudhan
Sourina Bej
IPRI Team
Sneha M
D. Suba Chandran
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Apoorva Sudhakar
D. Suba Chandran
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Apoorva Sudhakar
Sneha M
D. Suba Chandran
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
D. Suba Chandran
Ankit Singh
Apoorva Sudhakar
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
D. Suba Chandran
D. Suba Chandran
Chetna Vinay Bhora
GP Team
IPRI Team
STIR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Aswathy Koonampilly
GP Team
IPRI Team
STIR Team
GP Team
Sourina Bej
Harini Madhusudan
Apoorva Sudhakar
Vineeth Daniel Vinoy
GP Team
IPRI Team
STIR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Juan Mary Joseph
Joeana Cera Matthews
Joeana Cera Matthews
Sukanya Bali
Joeana Cera Matthews
Lokendra Sharma
IPRI Team
Bhuvan Ningania
STIR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
STIR Team
Lokendra Sharma
GP Team
IPRI Team
Apoorva Sudhakar
Anu Maria Joseph
Dincy Adlakha
Sarthak Jain
GP Team
Jeshil J Samuel
STIR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
STIR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Keerthana Rajesh Nambiar
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Anu Maria Joseph
Sankalp Gurjar
Apoorva Sudhakar
Lokendra Sharma
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Mohamad Aseel Ummer
Dincy Adlakha
Dincy Adlakha
Joeana Cera Matthews
GP Team
IPRI Team
STIR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
SDP Scholar
GP Team
IPRI Team
Gurpreet Singh
Chetna Vinay Bhora
Anju Joseph
GP Team
IPRI Team
SDP Scholars
GP Team
Sarthak Jain
Sourina Bej
Vibha Venugopal
Dincy Adlakha
Udbhav Krishna P
Joeana Cera Matthews
Keerthana Rajesh Nambiar
Julia Mathew
Dhanushaa P
GP Team
IPRI Team
SDP Scholars
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Apoorva Sudhakar
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Rashmi BR
Lokendra Sharma
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
V S Ramamurthy and Dinesh K Srivastava
Lokendra Sharma
GP Team
Harini Madhusudan
Apoorva Sudhakar
IPRI Team
GP Team
GP Team
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Akriti Sharma
Avishka Ashok
Apoorva Sudhakar
Sukanya Bali
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Apoorva Sudhakar
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Avishka Ashok
Harini Madhusudan
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Sukanya Bali
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Apoorva Sudhakar
GP Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
N Manoharan and Drorima Chatterjee
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
D Suba Chandran
GP Team
D Suba Chandran
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
Mallika Devi
Harini Madhusudan
Kamna Tiwary
Apoorva Sudhakar
Teshu Singh
Sourina Bej
Rashmi Ramesh
Aparaajita Pandey
Teiborlang T Kharsyntiew
Sandip Kumar Mishra
Sourina Bej
Harini Madhusudan
Gunjan Singh
Sukanya Bali
Sumedha Chatterjee
GP Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Rashmi Ramesh
IPRI Team
GP Team
Harini Madhusudan
IPRI Team
Harini Madhusudan
GP Team
IPRI Team
Sukanya Bali
GP Team
Savithri Sellapperumage
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Harini Madhusudan
Rashmi Ramesh
Mallika Devi
IPRI Team
Srikumar Pullat
GP Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Harini Madhusudan
Lokendra Sharma
GP Team
Nancy Pathak
Shreya Sinha
Kamna Tiwary
Tamanna Khosla
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Vaishali Handique
Sneha Tadkal
Unnikrishnan M J
Rashmi Ramesh
A Padmashree
Oviya A J
Harini Sha P
Chavindi Weerawansha
Arjun C
Anju Annie Mammen
Harini Madhusudan
Sourina Bej
Lakshmi V Menon
GP Team
Samreen Wani
Sankalp Gurjar
IPRI Team
Harini Madhusudan
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Sourina Bej
GP Team
IPRI Team
Harini Madhusudan
Samreen Wani
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Padmashree A
IPRI Team
GP Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Boa Wang
IPRI Team
Adnan Aziz Chowdhury
Mahesh Bhatta
Boa Wang
N. Manoharan
Prof PM Soundar Rajan
GP Team
Harini Sha P
Rashmi Ramesh
Sourina Bej
D. Suba Chandran
Harini Madhusudan
La Toya Waha
Jenice Jean Goveas
GP Team
Sanduni Atapattu
Chavindi Weerawansha
Chrishari de Alwis Gunasekare
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
Natasha Fernando
Ruwanthi Jayasekara
N Manoharan
Asanga Abeyagoonasekera
Kabi Adhikari
Jenice Jean Goveas
Fatemah Ghafori
GP Team
Sukanya Bali
Lakshmi V Menon
Rashmi Ramesh
Rashmi Ramesh
Harini Madhusudan
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
GP Team
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Divyabharathi E
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