China and Rare Earths: An Annotated Bibliography (Part-II)
Femy Francis 

Sophia Kalantzakos, “China and the Geopolitics of Rare Earths,” Jstor, January 2019
Kalantzakos’ book maps out how and why China used economic statecraft to curb its rare earth export in 2010 to Japan. The author notes that China was blessed with a generous presence of rare earths and metal deposits, though it is not unique, it became the dominant supplier due to its low cost compared to American and European companies. Sophia Kalantzakos stated that this competitive advantage is based on multifaceted factors: lower labour and equipment costs, weak safety and environmental standards, and the government’s support. The usage of economic statecraft, Sophia Kalantzakos claims, is not new and similar trends can be found with other relevant resources like oil. Kalantzakos concludes with the strategy China used since the 1990s in regards to rare earths, where the government pursued an industrial strategy aimed to give their country a leading position in the supply chain.

“The Chinese Society of Rare Earths,” 1979
The Chinese Society of Rare Earths is an institution established in 1979 and is registered with China’s Ministry of Civil Affairs and the National Society under the China Association for Science and Technology. It is an academic, non-profit social institution formed by rare earth scientists and related people in China. The Chinese Society of Rare Earths publishes four journals: the Journal of Rare Earths, Rare Earths, China Rare Earth Information, as well as the website and yearbook of the Chinese Society of Rare Earths. It also operates an official website and WeChat official account. They hold a conference and provide grants to young and upcoming researchers. The institution is linked with the government, and its page has clear allegiance to CPC party ideology and policy. This page can provide researchers with the recent events, innovations, meetings, and annual reports related to rare earths happening in China.

Roland Howanietz, “China’s Virtual Monopoly of Rare Earth Elements,” Routledge Contemporary China, 2018
Howanietz’s book looks at the monopoly China has over the rare earths, arguing that this dominance over the global rare earth elements is linked with the control China has over mines and processing. The book also noted the economic, strategic and technological implications of this monopoly. Howanietz also looks at how much other countries have in REE in reserve and in production, while concluding that China’s control and monopoly is far-reaching than anyone else. The time frame this book focuses on is from the late 1990s to 2010, when the first export restriction of rare earths was imposed by China on Japan. The book also extrapolates on the importance and strategic relevance of REE as “technology metals,” making them relevant.

Wang Minggin & Dou Xuehong, “Episodes from the history of China’s rare earth industry,” Springer, 1996
This book by Minggin and Xuehong looks at the advent of modern technology and the rise of relevance of the rare earth industry. They also note China’s abundant rare earth resources and rapidly expanding industry. They believe this is due to the implementation of reform and open policy, with the rise of demand domestically and internationally. This led to a sharp increase in rare earth supply. The authors note today, China has become not only the major supplier of rare earth raw materials, but also the major producer, consumer and exporter of rare earth products, taking an important place in the world market. The relevance of the book is that it showcases China’s rare earth industry pre-1990s and how these authors and researchers could foresee the rise of rare earths as an important mineral.

Yuling Xie; Zengqian Hou; Richard J. Goldfarb; Xiang Guo; Lei Wang, “Rare Earth Element Deposits in China,” Geo Science World, 01 January 2016
The co-authors, in their book chapter, give a scientific background to China’s rare earths. They look into the types of deposits China has, where the authors note the carbonatite-related deposits host the majority of China’s REE resource and are the primary supplier of the world’s light REE. The second type is the REE-bearing clay deposits, or ion adsorption-type deposits. The chapter states that “the complex geologic evolution of China’s Precambrian blocks, particularly the long-term subduction of ocean crust below the North and South China blocks, enabled recycling of REE-rich pelagic sediments into mantle lithosphere. This resulted in the REE-enriched nature of the mantle below the Precambrian cratons, which were reactivated and thus essentially decratonized during various tectonic episodes throughout the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic. Deep fault zones within and along the edges of the blocks, including continental rifts and strike-slip faults, provided pathways for upwelling of mantle material.”

Peize Wang, Zhixiong Weng, Tingting Liu, Shengnan Wang, Yanmin He, & Yufeng Wu, “New energy leads to rare earth supply shortages and exacerbates the scale of avalanches,” Taylor & Francis, 11 July 2025
The authors of this paper note that, with the global push towards carbon neutrality and the development of new industries, there will be a rise in the importance of rare earths. The paper analyses the impact of rare earth demand on the structure of the Global Rare Earth Trade Network (GRTN). The paper also claims that with the development of the emerging energy industry, there will be a global storage of the supply of rare earths. The authors note, “The findings highlight the increasing systemic risk posed by structural concentration and the urgency of diversifying supply sources, promoting recycling, and developing early-warning governance mechanisms to ensure the resilience of rare earth supply systems.”