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Lekshmi MK
3 August 2025 |
What happened on 28 July 1914?
A regional conflict that triggered a world war
On 28 July 1914, the Austro-Hungarian Empire declared war on Serbia, a month after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. This initially appeared to be a regional conflict between two Balkan states soon escalated into a global war that engulfed much of Europe and beyond. This marked the beginning of the First World War.
The declaration followed Serbia’s partial rejection of an ultimatum issued by Austria-Hungary. Backed by the German Empire, Austria-Hungary sought to punish Serbia, whom it held responsible for the assassination carried out by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist linked to the group known as the Black Hand. Despite diplomatic efforts to avoid escalation, the declaration of war on Serbia triggered a chain reaction of alliance-based military mobilisations. It eventually drew in Russia, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and many others.
It started as a localised conflict in the Balkans, which quickly morphed into a global war, with consequences that reshaped the 20th century politically, socially, and geographically.
What led to the war?
Assassination, alliances, and an arms race
First, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The immediate spark came on 28 June 1914, when Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie were assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip. The event shocked Europe but was not seen initially as a cause of war. However, Austria-Hungary saw the assassination as a direct attack on its sovereignty and a challenge to its authority in the Balkans. The Austro-Hungarian leadership believed Serbia had a hand in the assassination. It also wanted to use the crisis to crush Serbian nationalism once and for all.
Second, Austria-Hungary’s ultimatum to Serbia. On 23 July 1914, Austria-Hungary issued a ten-point ultimatum to Serbia. The terms were harsh and designed to provoke rejection. While Serbia accepted most of the conditions, it objected to clauses that would allow Austro-Hungarian officials to operate on Serbian soil during investigations. This partial rejection gave Austria-Hungary the chance to go to war.
Third, the web of alliances and militarism. By 1914, Europe was entangled in a complex network of alliances. Austria-Hungary was backed by Germany, while Serbia was supported by Russia. France, in turn, was allied with Russia, and Britain had informal agreements with both. Military plans like Germany’s Schlieffen Plan and Russia’s large-scale mobilisation plans meant that once war was initiated, it would be difficult to localise. Militarism also played a key role. European powers had been engaging in an arms race for decades, glorifying war and building massive armies. War was often seen as inevitable, even desirable by some nationalists and military planners.
Fourth, nationalism and imperial rivalries. Nationalism was running high in the early 20th century. In the Balkans, Slavic nationalism was rising, and Serbia aimed to lead the unification of Slavic peoples in the region. This was a direct threat to Austria-Hungary, a multi-ethnic empire already struggling to manage internal dissent. Meanwhile, imperial competition among Britain, France, Germany, and Russia created deep distrust and tension.
Fifth, diplomatic failures. Efforts to mediate and de-escalate the crisis, sometimes called the July Crisis, failed. While some leaders, notably Britain’s foreign secretary Sir Edward Grey, attempted to negotiate, most were constrained by military timetables and strategic calculations. The diplomatic channels were slow, and miscommunication or lack of urgency worsened the crisis.
What followed the declaration?
From Europe’s crisis to a global war
First, rapid escalation. Austria-Hungary’s declaration of war on Serbia on 28 July 1914 set the block falling. Russia, seeing itself as the protector of Slavic nations, began mobilising its forces. Germany, viewing Russian mobilisation as a threat, declared war on Russia on 01 August and on France on 03 August. Germany’s invasion of Belgium prompted Britain to declare war on Germany on 04 August. By the end of the first week of August, all the major European powers were at war.
Second, global involvement. Though it began in Europe, World War I soon became a global conflict. Colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific were drawn into the war as imperial powers conscripted colonial soldiers and used global resources. Japan entered the war on the side of the Allies, and in 1917, the United States joined after repeated provocations, including unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram.
Third, Trench warfare. On the Western Front, the war devolved into brutal trench warfare. Both sides dug in, facing each other across deadly no man’s lands. Battles like the Somme, Verdun, and Ypres became synonymous with unimaginable loss of life and futility. The Eastern Front, while more fluid, also saw mass casualties and suffering. New technologies such as machine guns, poison gas, tanks, and airplanes added to the destruction. Civilian populations suffered due to blockades, famine, and widespread displacement.
What are the consequences of the war?
Collapse of empires, redrawing of borders
First, human and economic costs. By the time the war ended in 1918, more than 16 million people were dead, both military and civilian. Tens of millions were wounded, maimed, or psychologically scarred. The economic toll was equally affected, with European economies drained and infrastructure shattered.
Second, the collapse of empires. The war led to the collapse of four major empires, including the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, German, and Russian Empires. Monarchies fell, and revolutions, such as the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, erupted. New nations, including Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia, emerged, and others were carved out of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman territories.
Third, the Versailles Treaty and the seeds of future conflict. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles officially ended the war. But it imposed harsh penalties on Germany, including massive compensations and territorial losses. While the treaty aimed to prevent future wars, many historians agree that it sowed the seeds for World War II by fostering resentment, economic hardship, and the rise of extremist ideologies in Germany.
Fourth, transformations in society. The war changed societies. Women took on new roles in factories, hospitals, and public life, contributing to the growing movement for women’s suffrage. The experience of war also produced a generation of veterans and gave rise to new artistic and literary movements like Modernism and the “Lost Generation.”
About the author
Lekshmi M K is pursuing postgraduation in the Department of Political Science, Madras Christian College, Chennai. She is also a research intern at the National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru. Her research interests include ocean governance, geopolitics of the Arctic and Antarctic regions, the impact of climate change on maritime security, and environmental diplomacy.
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