NIAS Area Studies
PAKISTAN READER
IN FOCUS
By Joeana Cera Matthews
Marking 30 years since the dissolution of the USSR
On 25 December 1991, thirty years ago, the President of the USSR Mikhail Gorbachev resigned. The Soviet empire which had lasted for nearly 70 years, covering 11 time zones, came to an end. It was one of those rare events in history when the world witnessed one of the two global superpowers falling apart. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was consequently created and 15 republics have emerged since. The very event, however, came as a shock to many. In France24’s ‘The Debate’, a researcher at Vilnius’ Vytautas Magnus University Tatsiana Chulitskaya, stated that although the event was not an unexpected one, as it was the logical development to everything that was taking place, the exact moment of the collapse would have come as a surprise.
What led to the dissolution?
First, the political reasons. Internally, Chulitskaya states that Gorbachev’s policies of ‘glasnost’ and ‘perestroika’ “created ground for the systematic collapse of the USSR”. The Chernobyl nuclear plant disaster showed the political incompetence of the ruling empire – non-disclosure policies on publicly important information were causing problems. The case vividly demonstrated to the Soviet people that they needed the government to provide more information. The glasnost policy, thus, was the adequate answer to the people’s demands and expectations. Another popular theory, states the emotional and cultural component of the USSR, such as music, to have played quite a large part in the collapse. Externally, the oil crisis faced by the bloc led to dire economic issues. The war in Afghanistan, where the Red Army suffered setbacks was also a very important contributor to the Soviet fall.
Second, the Almaty Protocol and the 1991 coup. On 08 December 1991, the leaders of three republics – Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus – met at Almaty along with almost every other Soviet republic. They decided to dissolve the USSR and created the CIS. The three-day-long coup of August 1991, led by then-President Boris Yeltsin, saw tanks in the streets of Moscow. The resistance was soon “thwarted”.
Fourth, the Gorbachev factor. The US journalist Craig Copetas believes that if it were not for Gorbachev, the entire Soviet system would have continued to crumble for a lot longer. He maintains that Gorbachev was “a democratic politician, of course with the nuances of the Soviet time’. The Geneva summit between US President Ronald Reagan and Gorbachev in November 1985 was a radical moment in the history of the USSR, says Gorbachev’s former spokesperson Andrei Grachev. “A new leader coming from the icy capital of the Soviet empire,” did turn heads. Although Gorbachev intended to remove the mistrust that reigned over bilateral relations, his image seemed to do more harm than good – a new, young, and vibrant leader did not garner immediate acceptance from the West; fresh blood implied vigour to a decaying empire, and this was dangerous for the West. However, Copetas said that the camaraderie between Gorbachev and Reagan worried the public since they were not used to cordial bilateral relations.
Thirty Years Since
First, Gorbachev’s regret. In 2007, via an interview with France24, Gorbachev said: “No one sent me into retirement. I didn’t officially resign. The biggest mistake was in the collapse of the Soviet Union. It didn’t happen because of the West. That's rubbish. But you said that Gorbachev resigned. No, when I saw what had been agreed in Almaty, I went on television and I said: “I am ceasing my activities as President.” I couldn’t help but stop. I could have started turning it around. I could have convened the Old Congress of People’s Deputies, convened the High Soviet. I could have called in the Army. But I saw there would have been a split. It was obvious, despite what people voted for in March, that the union could have been saved.” Grachev commented on this regret stating that the three basic instruments of keeping the state alive – the KGB, the party, and the army – had betrayed Gorbachev. All that was left to do was to address the nation and let them know of the disintegration.
Second, a renewed opportunity. Chulitskaya stated that for states like Belarus and other ex-Soviet members, the collapse indicated an opportunity to become a new state and start afresh. However, she says, what followed in many of these states is unfortunate. According to Kyiv Mohyla University Professor Olexiy Haran, many of these states that gained independence are now striving to really free themselves from the Russian grip.
Third, the Putin factor. Grachev termed Putin’s religion, if any, to be power. Putin believes that the “greatest tragedy of the 20th century” to be the USSR’s collapse – not the Second World War or the Holocaust. A former KGB agent and FSB chief, Putin does not hide his nostalgia for the Soviet era; however, unlike his Soviet predecessors, he was wise enough to stabilize present-day Russia by tapping into Russian nationalism. Even then, the country is still “plagued” by the same issues that the USSR faced. Russia has not yet dissolved, but it is definitely in crisis. As Clara Ferreira Marques states in Bloomberg: “The only question is what awaits at the other end, and how violent the transition period will be.” Putin has learnt his lessons well and today Russia continues to be a market economy that is more resilient and efficient than the Soviet one.
Fourth, the question of invasion in Russia and Ukraine. Since its independence, Ukraine has been attempting a balancing act between the east and the west. This, however, stopped with the Russian annexation of Crimea in 2014. Many of the Ukrainians believe decommunization to be key to the country’s emancipation. Grachev and Copetas agreed on the belief that Russia would not invade Ukraine. Grachev added: “He will, however, show that he is capable of it and get from the West as much as he wishes. But he is too pragmatic to destroy the foundation of his power.”
References:
Clara Ferreira Marques, “Who Saw the Collapse of the USSR Coming?,” Bloomberg, 24 December 2021.
“What's left of the USSR? Remembering the break-up of the Soviet Union - The Debate,” France24, 23 December 2021.
Gulliver Cragg, “Ukraine's 'decommunisation' and the fall of Soviet symbols - Focus,” France24, 22 December 2021.
FRANCE 24 English, “Looking back: 30 years since the collapse of the USSR,” YouTube, 21 December 2021.
Elena Volochine, “The good old days? Positive feelings about Stalin abound in Russia - Focus,” France24, 20 December 2021.
Elena Volochine, “In Russia, the battle for the memory of Soviet repressions - Revisited,” France24, 17 December 2021.
IN BRIEF
By Padmashree Anandhan and Ashwin Dhanabalan
RUSSIA
Tolokonnikova, another dissenting figure to be labelled "foreign agent”
On 30 December, Pussy Riot punk group member Nadezhda Tolokonnikova was labelled as a "foreign agent" by the Russian authorities. This decision came after the court ordered the NGO Memorial to shut down for failing to mark its foreign-funded publications as "foreign agent". Tolokonnikova has been an art collector, a famous satirist and a prominent figure of dissent in Russia. As reported by Deutsche Welle: "she took part in a 2012 protest inside Moscow's Christ the Savior Cathedral. She spent nearly two years in prison." The authorities in the Kremlin have justified their actions by stating it to be in the country's interest as foreign agents are interfering in Russian affairs through NGOs, journalists and certain people in the country. (“Russia labels Pussy Riot member, others as 'foreign agents’,” Deutsche Welle, 31 December 2021; “Russia declares Pussy Riot member, art collector and satirist ‘foreign agents’,” France24, 30 December 2021)
CLIMATE CHANGE
Portugal: Young adults file climate case against 33 countries
On 30 December, the BBC reported a group of six children from Portugal to have filed the first-ever climate case against 33 countries to counter climate change. In the past years, Portugal has been frequently exposed to wildfires and extreme heat waves due to human-induced climate change. The children have urged for the protection of the natural world and wish the same for future generations. The primary argument of the case revolves around how the existing government has failed to undertake the rightful measures to prevent the adversaries of climate change. According to the children, they have raised concerns stating the neglect of the government has taken away their individual right to life, privacy and non-discrimination under the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). The case has been accepted by the court and it has assured that it will be taken on priority. (Maarten Willems and Kate Vandy, “COP 26: The teenagers suing 33 countries,” BBC, 30 December 2021)
COVID-19
The UK: Government builds temporary hospitals to deal with rising cases
On 31 December, the UK government announced plans to build temporary hospitals as Prime Minister Boris Johnson was concerned about the rapid surge of patients due to the rising COVID-19 cases. Johnson said: “Look at the people going into hospital now, that could be you. Look at the intensive care units and the miserable, needless suffering of those who did not get their booster, that could be you.” On 30 December, the UK saw a total of 189,000 cases fuelled by the Omicron variant. The National Medical Director Stephen Powis said: “Given the high level of Covid-19 infections and increasing hospital admissions, the NHS is now on a war footing.” Meanwhile, Johnson urged people to get tested, take booster shots and be “sensible” attending New Year's events. (“‘War footing’: UK builds temporary hospitals to prepare for Covid-19 surge,” France24, 31 December 2021)
ECONOMY
Turkey: Erdogan urges people to save currency in form of Lira
On 31 December, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan urged his citizens to keep their savings in the form of lira, reiterating that the country's currency was under control. The announcement comes as many people converted their savings into dollars and euros due to the currency crisis. According to Erdogan: “I want all my citizens to keep their savings in our own money, to run all their business with our own money, and I recommend this.” The beginning of the free fall in lira’s currency value was because of Erdogan's interference in economic policy. To correct the situation, a scheme was introduced where the state protected the converted local deposits from losses in terms of hard currencies. Despite the moves by Erdogan, the currency is still traded at 13.3 to USD one. The same was traded at 7.4 at the start of 2021. (“Turkey: Erdogan tells savers to switch back to lira,” Deutsche Welle, 31 December 2021)
GENDER
Spain: Femicides now included in gender-based violence statistics
On 31 December, Spain declared itself to be the first country to include the count of femicides on the official statistics of gender-based violence. According to Spain’s Equality Minister Irene Montero: “What is not named does not exist... We have to recognise all of the victims and make visible all forms of violence – all machista [sexist] killings – so that we can put in place policies for prevention, early detection and eradication.” Earlier, Spain filed femicides as gender violence if it found evidence of a relationship between the killer and the victim. After 01 January 2022, the definition of gender violence is set to be broadened to include the murder of any woman and child. Henceforth, cases will be analyzed according to five categories, from killings connected to sexual exploitation, trafficking or prostitution to the killing of minors. The decision to change the record-keeping did not occur instantly but after multiple high-profile cases and protests. This move was seen as essential in Spain where the majority of the murdered women had their partners or ex-partners being the murderer. (Ashifa Kassam “Spain says it is first in Europe to officially count all femicides,” The Guardian, 31 December 2021)
France to provide free birth control pills to women between 18 to 25
On 31 December, France announced birth control pills to be made available for all women between the ages of 18 to 25. The move is aimed to stop unwanted pregnancies and is seen as an extension to the existing program for minors. It is said that close to three million women will benefit from the program, getting easy access to contraceptive patches and jabs. According to the France Health Ministry: “As of January 1, 2022, the health insurance system will cover the cost of contraception and related procedures (annual consultation with a doctor or midwife, and biological tests) without advance payment.” Many European countries including Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and Norway have made the usage of contraceptives free for its teens and minors; however, it is yet to do the same for its women aged 25 to 28 since they are not considered vulnerable. It is different only in the case of the UK where contraceptives are free for all. France easing the access of contraceptives for its women will set an example for other European countries. (“France to make birth control free for women aged 18-25,” Deutsche Welle, 31 December 2021)
INTERNATIONAL
Italy recovers stolen antiques from the US
On 30 December, Italian authorities recovered ancient artefacts worth EUR 10 million found in the US. Italian authorities and their US counterparts raided multiple locations in a joint operation to secure 201 pieces of antiques. The Carabinieri Cultural Protection Commander Roberto Riccardi said: "Investigators have reconstructed a chain leading from illegal excavations to art dealers to US museums, auction houses, art galleries and private collections." As reported by Euronews: "Some were bought by international auction houses, galleries and private collectors, as well as museums including the Getty Museum in Los Angeles and the Fordham Museum in New York." In addition, the Carabinieri and the FBI have been working together to trace several other ancient artefacts over the years. They have been successful in recovering artefacts worth EUR 427 million in 2021 alone. Italy is the current G20 Chairman and has used its authority to urge member nations to crack down on these artefact smuggling networks. ("Italy seizes ancient artworks worth €10 million from the US," Deutsche Welle, 30 December 2021; Theo Farrant, "Italy recovers €10 million worth of stolen artworks from around the world," Euronews, 31 December 2021)