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Debangana Chatterjee
21 November 2022 |
Lessons from Ukraine War: Effectiveness of Sanctions
NIAS/CSS/STIR/U/IB/27/2022
NIAS Area Studies Brief No. 52 | NIAS Europe Studies
21 September 2022
Abstract
The beginning of the Russia-Ukraine war in 2022 also witnessed international sanctions against Russia. Even before the formal act of aggression on 24 February 2022, sanctions were already being discussed against Russia in anticipation of its aggression. Most of these measures targeting Russia were economic and socio-cultural in nature and not consolidated into collective military efforts. While international sanctions are penalising measures targeting the violators of international laws and serve to maintain international peace and security, their efficacy simply depends on who the aggressor is and how the aggressor is placed in the international power system. This paper, therefore, critically looks at the international sanctions regime to assess its efficacy in general, and more particularly in the context of the ongoing Ukrainian crisis. In this process, the paper explores the complex power bias inherent in international sanctions and the politics of ‘othering’. The aim, thus, is also to explore the partisan international sanctions regime which is self-limiting its effectiveness. The paper takes recourse to a three-fold analysis to unpack the nuances of international sanctions juxtaposing them against the current Ukrainian context. First, it provides an overview of international sanctions and places them in a historical context. Second, it analyses the specific sanctions against Russia during the ongoing crisis to understand their efficacy. Third, reviewing the past and the present outcomes of international sanctions, this paper tries to look beyond the Ukraine crisis to evaluate the impact of sanctions as an effective political tool in the coming decades.
Sanctions: A Historical Context
International sanctions have evolved throughout history and developed their own norms, principles, and rules, making them into an international regime. International sanctions regime may therefore be defined as a set of international principles, norms, rules and decision-making procedures on the issue-area of implementing sanctions around which the international actors converge (Krasner 1982). The sanctions regime, as the hallmark of an international liberal order, is built on an idea of persuasive coercion for maintaining international peace and stability through cooperative measures. It has resided somewhere between the ‘wars’ and ‘words’ of international relations determined by realpolitik.
The post-war regime of international sanctions stems from the collective realisation of an agreed path to avoid the impending catastrophes of war. Historically speaking, the regime has evolved in close relation to the adoption of the United Nations (UN) Charter, establishing a liberal framework for peace. Chapter VII of the UN Charter authorizes the UN Security Council (UNSC) to enforce peace by determining “the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression" and making recommendations for military and non-military actions to “maintain or restore international peace and security” (UN 1945). While the UN provides a mechanism for the collective enforcement of sanctions, the UNSC has been paralyzed in implementing them over various moments in history, especially during the Cold War years (Farall 2007). Historically speaking, a collective effort for sanctions sought big power consensus at the UNSC, something that could hardly be reached due to the rampant use of veto during this period. The glaringly high numbers of unilateral sanctions in the 1970s and 1980s stand witness to the Cold War deadlock in implementing collective sanctions (Elliott 2005: 4). Despite many proposals for UN sanctions not materializing on many occasions, there were still many sanctions that did muster collective support.
First, sanctions have been successfully declared in particular cases where there was no power bloc dilemma, as was the case during the Cold War. From WWI through the 1990s, a total of 193 sanctions have been recorded (Elliott 2005: 4). Since 1966, the UNSC as a collective imposed just about 30 sanctions against states like Rhodesia, South Africa, the former Yugoslavia, Haiti, Iraq, Angola, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Liberia, DRC, Côte d’Ivoire, Sudan, Lebanon, DPRK, Iran, Libya, Guinea-Bissau, CAR, Yemen, South Sudan and Mali, and non-state actors like ISIL (Da'esh), Al-Qaida, and the Taliban (in 1999) (UNSC n. d.). The list succinctly captures two factors - the sharp decline in the number of sanctions during the Cold War, and the absence of deadlock by the UNSC permanent members in the implementation of these sanctions.
Second, the mere imposition of sanctions does not guarantee its success. While an organised effort at collective sanctions may bear effective results as was the sanction regime against the South African apartheid, the efficacy of sanctions may be rooted in myriad other political and socio-economic factors. For example, the success of the South African sanctions regime possibly lies in the nature of its mixed economy with a heavy dependence on mining raw materials and the internal change process initiated by the South African stakeholders alongside a constructive engagement centred around an anti-apartheid strategy (Crawford 1999: 3). More importantly, the impact of sanctions, except the military ones, are not immediately felt and, therefore, sanctions are predominantly assessed retrospectively. Thus, looking back on the sanctions against Yugoslavia, Rwanda, and Sudan, to name a few, the regime had grossly failed to prevent these conflicts' violent occurrences. The feebly imposed UN arms embargoes and European aid curtailments, crafted to prevent further escalation of civil strife and genocide in these countries fell short of proving to be effective (Elliott 2005).
Third, the international sanctions regime, reflecting mainly on the list of the UN-established items, works selectively. This selective implementation of sanctions may be understood in two ways - its higher success rate when imposed on weaker states and the coloniality of sanctions. For instance, a higher rate of sanction implementation was witnessed in the African and West Asian states, most of which went through the ‘bloody’ state-making process as part of their ‘Third World security predicament’ (Ayoob 1995). This power-play through the sanction regime is also deeply rooted within the colonial construct. Most of these states are erstwhile colonies, an aspect often kept inside the ‘black box’ of international relations. Statistically speaking, while the principal imposers of sanctions, apart from the UN, have consistently been the US, Western Europe, and USSR/Russia throughout history, between 1970 and 1999 about 118 sanctions were imposed, of which 87 were enforced on the African, Asian, Middle Eastern and Latin American countries combined (Elliott 2005: 5). There have been significant changes in the pattern of sanctions since the 1990s. With the end of the Cold War, the usage of sanctions by the US decreased sharply in relative terms and this period witnessed more sanctions from the European Union, Russia, and the United Nations. There was also a perceptible change in the countries that were sanctioned. For instance, while the Soviet Union and its allies were the targets of most of the western sanctions in the 1970s and 1980s, post-Cold War imposition of sanctions by Russia increased against former Soviet Union (FSU) states (Elliott 2005: 5).
Fourth, while UN sanctions provided the basic framework for the international sanctions regime, they were also imposed unilaterally and supranationally in the face of the UN’s failure to implement sanctions successfully. The bearing influence of the Western bloc has been notable, in this regard, even during the Cold War period. As the torchbearers of the liberal world order, the Western bloc with the United States being the vanguard has time and again used sanctions as a tool of enforcement. It provided them with a humanitarian image while accruing specific interests vis-à-vis the sanctioned states. Of the approximately 60 sanctions imposed in the 1990s, 42 had US involvement, albeit, in tandem with other countries from the Western bloc (Elliott 2005: 4). In addition, there are a few notable instances of unilateral US sanctions that aimed to prevent nuclear weapons proliferation in the 1990s along with the sanctions that were carried forward as the residues of Cold War (Elliott 2005: 4).
The historical patterns of these sanctions are also evident in the current set of sanctions during the Russia-Ukraine war of 2022.
Russia-Ukraine War and Sanctions against Russia
Against the background of the Russia-Ukraine War, and patterns of the international sanctions regime, it is pertinent to address four key questions. First, who is imposing the sanctions? Second, which areas are these sanctions focused on? Third, what are the specifics of the sanctions? Fourth, what is the likely efficacy of the sanctions? This paper addresses these questions by undertaking a sector-wise analysis of sanctions imposed against Russia by states and non-state entities, and their political, economic, and socio-cultural impact. Given that it is a rapidly evolving contemporary scenario, the paper does not aim to exhaustively list all developments surrounding it. Rather, it attempts to provide a conceptual framework within which the impact of sanctions against Russia is contextualised.
Sanctions by state actors are primarily from the Western bloc as has been the case in the past. Of the close to 54 recorded sanctions imposed by various state actors, the US and the EU unilaterally, and in collaboration with others, have imposed 12 sanctions each against Russia. Most of the sanctions target the Russian energy and finance sector (Funakoshi et. al. 2022). The EU has been a supranational collective whose interest in opposing Russia can be traced back to its 2014 Crimean annexation. Other than the US and EU, there are prominent Western allies including the UK, Canada, Japan, Australia, Singapore, Switzerland, and Finland (Funakoshi et. al. 2022), who have imposed sanctions revealing the Western bias within the sanctions regime. It is important to note that a UNSC sanction against Russia is unlikely, simply due to the Russian veto power.
Russia’s military prowess, including its nuclear capabilities, prevents kneejerk military reactions even from the Western bloc and works as a significant deterrent against an all-out war. Thus, militarily speaking, it is highly unlikely a full-fledged world war will break out in the current context. Thus, political sanctions against Russia in effect do not necessarily transcend the shunning of diplomatic ties. In the absence of collective military action against Russia, the sanctions against it have primarily targeted its economy by financial and energy-related and private wealth measures against the state and select Russian individuals.
Apart from state actors, many non-state multi-national companies like Siemens, Nokia, Nestle, McDonald’s, Coca-Cola, Starbucks, and Renault, based in the sanctioning states from the Western bloc, have also severed their relationships with various Russian industrial sectors including technology, automobile, consumer goods, media, energy, and hospitality (Funakoshi et. al. 2022). Notably, more than 1,000 multi-national companies have diminished, suspended, or completely halted operations in Russia.
While global food chains like McDonald's have declared a permanent withdrawal from the state and are now in the process of selling their established restaurants across Russia, Nestle has hit the Russian consumer sector by announcing the withdrawal of certain brands like KitKat and Nesquik despite continuing to sell essential food items in Russia (BBC 2022). While these have serious implications for the Russian economy, in an age of the rampantly sprouting consumer service providers, particularly Chinese involvement in the manufacturing sector and considerable firm footing of select Russian firms, the impact of sanctions by non-state entities is likely to wither away beyond its immediate effect. There are prominent Western brands like Marks and Spencer, Burger King, and hotel groups such as Marriott and Accor whose business models are premised upon complex franchise set-up, and thus, for these brands pulling out from Russia is not possible due to franchise stakeholders’ interests (BBC 2022).
One of the crudest financial measures so far has been to freeze the Russian central bank assets to prevent it from using its 630bn USD of foreign currency reserves (BBC 2022). While this caused the devaluation of the rouble by 22 per cent and a 14 per cent hike in the Russian inflation rate, Moscow has managed to recover from it to a certain extent by taking measures for forex revenue conversions to the rouble and meeting the financial liabilities (Al-Jazeera 2022). The US sanction preventing Russia from using the 600m USD reserved in US banks, was aimed at incapacitating Russia from making debt payments (BBC 2022). Besides, major Russian banks (Sberbank, the Credit Bank of Moscow and the Russian Agricultural Bank) have been eliminated from the international financial messaging system like Swift and the UK financial system, thereby increasing the delay in payments for the Russian energy exports (BBC 2022). The debarring from the UK financial system has been accompanied by the freezing of the assets of the Russian banks and prohibiting Russian companies and individuals from borrowing and depositing.
Another potential jolt to the Russian economic sector comes in the form of slashing the Russian energy export by huge means. While the US has completely banned Russian oil and gas imports, the UK has promised the phasing out the Russian oil imports by 2022 (BBC 2022; Funakoshi et. al 2022). Germany has also pushed further the plans for opening the Nord Stream II gas pipeline from Russia (BBC 2022). The EU too was contemplating halting Russian coal imports by August, crude oil in six months, and refined product imports by the end of 2022 (BBC 2022). While Russia is the third-largest producer of crude oil in the world, half of its production was being exported to European countries before the sanctions were in place (Horton et. al. 2022).
US President Joe Biden has not only announced the release of the US oil reserves to recompense for the Russian oil and to prop up the oil sanctions momentum but he is also contemplating lifting the sanctions on Venezuelan oil (Horton et. al. 2022). While the curb on the Russian oil hits the Russian economy hard, its supply of natural gas provides the Russian state with an upper hand. Despite the Ukrainian crisis, Russia has continued its supply of natural gas to many European countries due to their huge dependence on Russian natural gas and the relative absence of favourable and affordable alternatives (Horton et. al. 2022). As of 2021, Russia was the world’s second-largest producer of natural gas in the world after the US and precedes Canada (the third-largest producer) by a huge margin. Most importantly, among the European countries, there is hardly any consensus in terms of curtailing the energy supply from Russia (Horton et. al. 2022). In its attempts at addressing the challenges caused by the sanctions, Russia has issued a strong warning to specific hostile states about the possibility of being made to pay in roubles which makes the import costlier for the importing countries and curbs the depreciation of roubles (Horton et. al. 2022). For instance, Gazprom, one of the most prominent Russian-state-owned energy companies, has warned of stopping the gas supplies to Poland and Bulgaria, unless the payments are received in roubles (Horton et. al. 2022).
On the other hand, there is a large pool of energy importers who have not resorted to such energy sanctions. While India may try to leverage the low cost of importing Russian energy (Menon 2022), China has been consistent in the import of Russian natural gas in March this year as compared to the previous year, despite a steep decline in China’s overall fuel imports (Reuters 2022).
Sanctions have also been imposed on Russian individuals. The Western bloc has come together in imposing sanctions against more than 1,000 Russian individuals and businesses by freezing private wealth. Notable oligarchs including Chelsea FC owner Roman Abramovich, Russian government officials, Russian leaders and their relatives including President Vladimir Putin and Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov have been targeted by the means of individual sanctions (BBC 2022). While the UK has stopped issuing ‘golden visas’ for providing residency rights to wealthy Russians, the EU has plans of imposing sanctions against 58 Russians, especially those involved in war crimes involving the capture of Bucha and Mariupol (BBC 2022).
The pressure on Russia (and Belarus) intensified in significance as well as implications when international sports governing bodies and tournament organisers slapped full or conditional bans on sportspersons, while cultural bodies across the world, including many opera houses, decided to cancel programmes by Russian artists. One of the first bodies to come forth with sanctions was FIFA, which barred Russia and Belarus national football teams from its World Cup qualifiers for the 2022 tournament (BBC Sport 2022).
The UEFA, the European governing body for football, barred all Russian and Belarussian teams from its club competitions setting a precedent which was followed quickly by many sports including athletics (IAAF) which cancelled the membership of Russia and Belarus federations (BBC Sport 2022). That effectively meant the athletes from these countries could not compete under their national flag. One of the most telling bans came from the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) which did not allow athletes from Russia to compete at the Beijing Winter Games in March even at the cost of flouting the inclusive Paralympic spirit (BBC Sport 2022).
Wimbledon organisers, heeding Britain's political and economic position in the conflict, banned Russia and Belarus players despite strongly worded condemnation from the professional tennis governing bodies (BBC Sport 2022). The ban, or rather conditional bans in professional sports, highlights a unique trend in the sanctions. While the largely amateur events, those in which the sportspersons are dependent on state support to fuel their careers, slapped bans, the professional ones, possibly considering the economic implications, were more than willing to let Russians compete. For instance, in the US, the National Hockey League (ice-hockey) teams retained their highly-rated Russian players on the rosters and even roped in fresh ones during their annual draft.
On the cultural front, the bans and boycotts of the artists reopened the chasm that was getting bridged in the post-Cold War era. Artists and celebrities such as Green Day and Louis Tomlinson cancelled events in Russia while many global institutions placed a blanket ban on Russian cultural exports (Khomani 2022). Warner Bros, for instance, delayed releases of films like Turning Red and The Batman in Russia. The Metropolitan Opera and Cannes Film Festival barred what they described as ‘artists close to Vladimir Putin’ from being part of their events (Khomani 2022).
In the media, Spotify suspended free as well as paid streaming in Russia while Live Nation ceased all businesses in the country (Funakoshi et. al 2022). Overall, sanctions against sportspersons and artists, dependent on the state for not just their careers but the safety of themselves and their kith and kin and with little or no say in the country’s political decisions, may hardly deem politically effective.
Beyond Ukraine: Sanctions in the 2020s
Looking beyond, the question remains on the future of sanctions post the war in Ukraine. Learning from the past and reflecting on the present Ukrainian context, the prognosis of the efficacy of sanctions looks bleak. To be effective, sanctions are heavily dependent on big power consensus upholding the fragility of international cooperation. Therefore, while it has been easier historically to place sanctions on relatively weaker states, it is difficult to contain a country such as Russia with its military and economic prowess through sanctions. Despite the lack of UNSC consensus, the overwhelming imposition of sanctions in response to Russian aggression also showcases the sense of urgency felt in implementing these. While there are multiple ongoing conflicts across the world, the overt rallying of sanctions in this context is emblematic of the Western centricity in imposing sanctions. For example, though Saudi Arabian involvement in Yemen is explicitly known, the international sanctions regime chose to overlook the same and did so conveniently.
At the core of the current sanctions regime is a classic example of ‘othering’ those who do not suit Western interests. Most importantly, the ‘othering’ of Russia is an extension of the distrust that has culminated since the Cold War. From a post-colonial perspective, this biased implementation of sanctions may be seen within the larger discourses on racism in international politics, wherein certain states are prioritised over others based on the interplay of intricate power dynamics. While the post-world war history indicates a greater implementation of Western sanctions on relatively weaker states in Africa and Asia, the ‘othering’ of Russia in the present context may also be argued from a Russian racial standpoint. What remains noteworthy is the racial connotation of ‘othering’ rather than the sociological understanding of racism.
While it is important to acknowledge the significance of the sanctions against Russia in sending a strong message to those who violate international law, the faultline is evident in two places. First, the international sanctions regime is anything but equitable. Second, it has limited effectiveness, especially when implemented against a major power in the world. In other words, the positionality of the aggressor both in terms of its prowess and racial belonging matters in implementing sanctions. While a combination of the Russian racial ‘otherness’ and the Ukrainian racial familiarity invite more sanctions for Russia, the Russian political and economic prowess limits the impact of the Western sanctions and renders them less effective.
Conclusion
Looking ahead, the international sanctions regime is likely to be shaped by the emerging realities in the international system. Given that no country can afford the expenses of wars and conflicts, the space for the collective enforcement of military sanctions would shrink even further. With the ongoing redistribution of global power, especially with China and Russia at the helm of it, even the collective enforcement of UNSC non-military actions is unlikely. This decade would continue witnessing a piece-meal approach to sanctions. More than its efficacy, what remains of it is glaring tokenism. The growing global economic interdependency makes it harder to envisage any holistic success of international sanctions. While the Western centricity of sanctions would continue to signal symbolic efforts made by the Western power bloc to uphold international peace and stability, with the shifting power dynamics in global politics, the efficacy of sanctions gradually diminishes over time.
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About the author
The author is an Assistant Professor at the at Centre for Research in Social Sciences, and Education (CeRSSE), in JAIN (Deemed-to-be University), Bangalore
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Santhiya M
Anu Maria Joseph
Lekshmi MK
Anu Maria Joseph
Akshath Kaimal
IPRI Team
Preetha Renganarayanan
Preetha Renganarayanan
Lekshmi MK
Sunidhi Sampige & Tanvi Harendra
NIAS Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Rohini Reenum
Akriti Sharma
IPRI Team
Femy Francis
Anu Maria Joseph
GP Team
Femy Francis
Anu Maria Joseph
Brighty Ann Sarah
Padmashree Anandhan
R Preetha
Akriti Sharma
GP Team
Anu Maria Joseph
Brighty Ann Sarah
Padmashree Anandhan
Akshath Kaimal
Brighty Ann Sarah
Akriti Sharma
Femy Francis
GP Team
Anu Maria Joseph
Padmashree Anandhan
Rohini Reenum
Brighty Ann Sarah and Preetha R
Anu Maria Joseph
D Suba Chandran
IPRI Team
GP Team
GP Team
Anu Maria Joseph
Neha Tresa George
Vani Vyshnavi Jupudi
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
Rizwana S Banu
IPRI Team
Advik S Mohan
Abhiruchi Chowdhury
Padmashree Anandhan
Santhiya M
Anu Maria Joseph
R Preetha
Bibhu Prasad Routray
Avishka Ashok
Padmashree Anandhan
Anu Maria Joseph
Mahesh Batta
Brighty Ann Sarah and R Preetha
GP Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
R Preetha
Padmashree Anandhan
Brighty Ann Sarah and R Preetha
IPRI Team
Abhimanyu Solanki
Brighty Ann Sarah and R Preetha
Padmashree Anandhan
GP Team
IPRI Team
Abhiruchi Chowdhury
Vani Vyshnavi Jupudi
Brighty Ann Sarah and R Preetha
IPRI Team
Abhiruchi Chowdhury
GP Team
Lekshmi MK
Anu Maria Joseph
Femy Francis
Femy FrancisÂ
R Preetha
Abhiruchi Chowdhury
GP Team
Naomi Miriam MathewÂ
Rohini Reenum
IPRI Team
Brighty Ann Sarah, R Preetha, Santhiya M, Aparna A Nair and M Kejia
Anu Maria Joseph
Abhiruchi Chowdhury
R Preetha
Merin Treesa Alex
Kasvi Batra
Chittrothu Vaihali
IPRI Team
Emma Rose Boby
Fleur Elizabeth Philip
Merin Treesa Alex
Santhiya M
GP Team
Farhaz Rashid Ahmed
Gauri Gupta
GP Team
Brighty Ann Sarah, R Preetha, Santhiya M, Aparna A Nair & M Kejia
IPRI Team
Kumari Gargi, Naomi Miriam Matthew, & Fleur Elizabeth PhilipÂ
Rizwana Banu S and Santhiya M
Lekshmi MK
Gauri Gupta
J Yamini
Santhiya M
Lekshmi MK
GP Team
R Preetha
Ananya Dinesh
IPRI Team
GP Team
Emma Rose Boby
R Preetha
Lekshmi MK
Merin Treesa Alex
Aparna A Nair
Fleur Elizabeth Philip
GP Team
GP Team
Brighty Ann Sarah
Aashish Ganeshan
Abhiruchi Chowdhury
Femy Francis
Gauri Gupta
GP Team
Brighty Ann Sarah and R Preetha
Padmashree Anandhan
Abhiruchi Chowdhury
R Preetha and Brighty Ann Sarah
R Preetha
Nuha Aamina
Emma Rose Boby
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Anu Maria Joseph
C Shraddha
Femy Francis
C Shraddha
Anu Maria Joseph
Anu Maria Joseph
Bibhu Prasad Routray
Nova Karun K
IPRI Team
Suchitra Jakkala
Padmashree Anandhan
Santhiya M
Brighty Ann Sarah
C Shraddha
Vaneeta
D Suba Chandran
IPRI Team
C Shraddha
D Suba Chandran
GP Team
Nuha Aamina
D Suba Chandran
Rohini Reenum
Rohini Reenum
South Asia Brief Team
Souparno Rakshit, Emma Rose Boby and Souparnika Suresh
GP Team
South Asia Brief Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Trisha Roy
IPRI Team
Ayan Datta
Anu Maria Joseph
Ayan Datta
Anu Maria Joseph
Anu Maria Joseph
Padmashree Anandhan
Padmashree Anandhan
Abhiruchi Chowdhury
Samruddhi Pathak
Neha Tresa George
IPRI Team
Kumari Krishna
C Shraddha
Kumari Krishna
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
Ayan Datta
Anu Maria Joseph
Anu Maria Joseph
Ayan Datta
Nupur Priya
C Shraddha, Vaishak Sreekumar, Kumari Krishna, Nova Karun K
IPRI Team
GP Team
PR Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Prajwal TV
Kavithasri M
IPRI Team
Ashna Pathak & Surangana Rajya Laxmi Rana
Anu Maria Joseph
Samruddhi Pathak
Femy Francis
IPRI Team
Abhiruchi Chowdhury
GP Team
Nuha Aamina
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Ayan Datta
S Shaji
Vetriselvi Baskaran
Anu Maria Joseph
Ayan Datta
GP Team
Advik S Mohan
Advik S Mohan
IPRI Team
Rohit Paswan
Padmashree Anandhan
Ayan Datta
Shreya Jagadeesan
Bishwarupa Kar
Saritha VK & Mahesh Mohan
Sruthy
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Advik S Mohan
Neha Tresa George
Samruddhi Pathak
Neha Tresa George
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Ayan Datta
Vetriselvi Baskaran
Sayeka Ghosh
GP Team
Neha Tresa George
Advik S Mohan
Ramya B
Sim V
Pummy Lathigara
Ronakk Tijoriwala
Arya Madhavan S
Ankita Chakra
Rianne Rajath P
GP Team
Anu Maria Joseph
GP Team
Swagathi Annabel
Bishwarupa Kar
Ayush Bhattacharjee
Shifa Moideen
IPRI Team
Vetriselvi Baskaran
L S Hareesh
Mugdha Chaturvedi
Ayan Datta
Vaneeta
Pummy Lathigara
Ms Ramya
Nivetha B
Leivon Victor Lamkang
Siddhima M
Pranesh Selvaraj
Dhriti Mukherjee
Nandini Khandelwal
Prajwal T V
Ronakk Tijoriwala
Govind Anoop
Shreya Jagadeesan
Rohit Paswan
Nupur Priya
Neha Tresa George
Shilpa Joseph
Vetriselvi Baskaran
IPRI Team
Dhriti Mukherjee
Dhriti Mukherjee
Rohini Reenum
GP Team
Shilpa Jospeh
Samruddhi Pathak
Sayeka Ghosh
Govind Anoop
Vetriselvi Baskaran
Neha Tresa George
Padmashree Anandhan
Diya Madhavan
GP Team
Vetriselvi Baskaran
Vaneeta
Dhriti Mukherjee
Ashwini Barla
Ayan Datta
Karthik Manoharan
Ramya B
Prajwal T V
IPRI Team
Vaneeta
Sayeka Ghosh
Ayan Datta
Karthik Manoharan
Prajwal TV
Mayank Bharti
Ronakk Tijoriwala
Deepika Seervi
Vetriselvi Baskaran
Anu Maria Joseph
Anu Maria Joseph
Vetriselvi Baskaran
Anu Maria Joseph
Jerry Franklin A
Anu Maria Joseph
Anu Maria Joseph
IPRI Team
Dhriti Mukherjee
Prajwal T V
Rohini Reenum
IPRI Team
Vetriselvi Baskaran
Dhriti Mukherjee
IPRI Team
Anu Maria Joseph
Ronakk Tijoriwala
Neha Tresa George
Shilpa Joseph and Ken Varghese
IPRI Team
Femy Francis
IPRI Team
Dhriti Mukherjee
Torunika Roy
GP Team
IPRI Team
Dhriti Mukherjee
IPRI Team
Mugdha Chaturvedi
Dhriti Mukherjee
By young scholars of NIAS Course on Global Politics: Contemporary World Order and Theories. Compiled by Sayeka Ghosh.
By the NIAS-IPRI Course scholars on Contemporary Conflicts, Peace Processes, Theories and Thinkers. Compiled by Ayan Datta.
Vaneeta
Kavithasri M
Mallika Joseph
Rohini Reenum
Padmashree Anandhan
Tiara Marie Warjri
GP Team
Femy Francis
Akhil Ajith
Dhriti Mukherjee
IPRI Team
D Suba Chandran
Padmashree Anandhan
Femy Francis
Rohini Reenum
Dhriti Mukherjee
D Suba Chandran
Rohini Reenum
Dhriti Mukherjee
NIAS South Asia Team
NIAS South Asia Team
Devi Chandana M
Alka Bala
D Suba Chandran
Rohini Reenum
Dhriti Mukherjee
Rohini Reenum
Dhriti Mukherjee
GP Team
IPRI Team
Lakshmi Karlekar
GP Team
Sayeka Ghosh
IPRI Team
Nupur Priya
GP Team
Dhriti Mukherjee
IPRI Team
Vaneeta
Arya Prasad
Sayeka Ghosh
Alka Bala
Diya Madhavan
IPRI Team
GP Team
Femy Francis
IPRI Team
Ramya B
NIAS South Asia Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Rosemary Kurian
Alka Bala
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
T C A Raghavan
IPRI Team
Karthik Manoharan
Rosemary Kurian
NIAS Africa Team
Manasa G
GP Team
IPRI Team
D Rohan Kumar
LS Hareesh
Ramya B
NIAS South Asia Team
NIAS South Asia Team
NIAS Africa Team
NIAS Africa Team
Asanga Abeyagoonasekera
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
NIAS South Asia Team
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
NIAS Latin America Team
NIAS South Asia Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
Jerry Franklin A
GP Team
IPRI Team
Padmashree Anandhan, Femy Francis, Rohini Reenum, Akriti Sharma, Akhil Ajith, Shamini Velayutham and Anu Maria Joseph
Alka Bala
IPRI Team
Narmatha S and Anu Maria Jospeh
Alka Bala
Rosemary Kurian
IPRI Team
CEAP Team
GP Team
Femy Francis
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
CEAP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Anu Maria Joseph
GP team
Hoimi Mukherjee
Richa Chandola
Aprajita Kashyap
Shreya Pandey
Binod Khanal
Rishika Yadav
Padmashree Anandhan
Anu Maria Joseph
Nuha Aamina
Alka Bala
Sayani Rana
​​​​​​​Ashok Alex Luke
Annem Naga Bindhu Madhuri
Femy Francis
Amit Gupta
Kuri Sravan Kumar
Yogeshwari S
Abhishek Ranjan
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Nithyashree RB
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Anu Maria Joseph
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
Jerry Franklin A
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
PR Team
Amit Gupta
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Akhil Ajith
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
Femy Francis
Femy Francis
Femy Francis
Femy Francis
NIAS Africa Team
Nithyashree RB
Jerry Franklin
GP Team
IPRI Team
PR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Nithyashree RB
PR Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Padmashree Anandhan
Rishika Yadav
Sreeja JS
Annem Naga Bindhu Madhuri
GP Team
IPRI Team
PR Team
Prof Joyati Bhattacharya
IPRI Team
GP Team
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
Anu Maria Joseph
Jerry Franklin A
IPRI Team
Dhriti Mukherjee
PR Team
Femy Francis
Shamini Velayutham
Sneha Surendran
PR Team
PR Team
PR Team
NIAS Africa Team
Anu Maria Joseph
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Sneha Surendran
Heribert Dieter
IPRI Team
Nithyashree RB
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
Sneha Surendran
Rishika Yadav
Padmashree Anandhan
Jerry Franklin A
Rishika Yadav
GP Team
IPRI Team
Jerry Franklin A
Lakshmi Parimala H
GP Team
Rishika Yadav
IPRI Team
D Suba Chandran
GP Team
Indrani Talukdar
IPRI Team
S Shaji
Jerry Franklin A
Sneha Surendran
Himani Pant
D. Suba Chandran
Ankit Singh
IPRI Team
Rubina Pradhan
Bibhu Prasad Routray
Nithyashree RB
Bibhu Prasad Routray
Devjyoti Saha
NIAS Africa Team
Jerry Franklin A
Anu Maria Joseph
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
Lakshmi Parimala
GP Team
IPRI Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Sneha Surendran
GP Team
Padmashree Anandhan
IPRI Team
Rishika Yadav, Sneha Surendran, Sandra D Costa, Ryan Marcus, Prerana P and Nithyashree RB
GP Team
Harini Madhusudan, Rishika Yada, Sneha Surendran, Prerana P, Sreeja JS and Padmashree Anandhan
GP Team
IPRI Team
Bibhu Prasad Routray
NIAS Africa Team
Anu Maria Joseph
Jerry Franklin
IPRI Team
Bibhu Prasad Routray
NIAS Africa Team
Jerry Franklin
Anu Maria Joseph
GP Team
IPRI Team
Anu Maria Joseph
GP Team
Rishika Yadav, Sreeja JS, Nithyashree RB, and Melvin George
Nithyashree RB
Sreeja JS
Rishika Yadav
Padmashree Anandhan
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Devjyoti Saha
Indrani Talukdar
Debangana Chatterjee
Kasturi Chatterjee
Ankita Dutta
Amrita Purkayastha
GP Team
Lakshmi Parimala H
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
Padmashree Anandhan
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Sourina Bej
GP Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Padmashree Anandhan
D Suba Chandran
D Suba Chandran
D Suba Chandran
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
Avishka Ashok
Madhura Mahesh
Padmashree Anandhan
Ankit Singh
Anu Maria Joseph
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Sethuraman Nadarajan
Avishka Ashok
IPRI Team
GP Team
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
Allen Joe Mathew, Sayani Rana, Joel Jacob
Ankit Singh
Bhoomika Sesharaj
Madhura Mahesh
Harini Madhusudan
Avishka Ashok
Akriti Sharma
Padmashree Anandhan
Poulomi Mondal
Mohaimeen Khan
Padmashree Anandhan
Madhura Mahesh
Padmashree Anandhan
Janardhan G
Avishka Ashok
Anu Maria Joseph
Apoorva Sudhakar
Rashmi BR
Kaviyadharshini A
Avishka Ashok
Chrishari de Alwis Gunasekare
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
NIAS Africa Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Vignesh Ram
Sai Pranav
Harini Madhusudan, Rishma Banerjee, Padmashree Anandhan, Ashwin Immanuel Dhanabalan, and Avishka Ashok
Sourina Bej
Padmashree Anandhan and Rishma Banerjee
Mathew Sonu Simon
Sourina Bej
Rashmi BR and Akriti Sharma
Rashmi Ramesh
Rishma Banerjee
Sai Pranav
Emmanuel Selva Royan
Padmashree Anandhan
Ashwin Immanuel Dhanabalan
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
Avishka Ashok
Angelin Archana
Shreya Upadhyay
Uma Purushothaman
Debangana Chatterjee
Himani Pant
Sethuraman Nadarajan
Avishka Ashok
GP Team
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Sourina Bej
Padmashree Anandhan
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
NIAS Africa Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Sourina Bej
Padmashree Anandhan
Padmashree Anandhan
NIAS Africa Team
NIAS Africa Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
STIR Team
GP Team
Padmashree Anandhan
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Avishka Ashok
NIAS Africa Team
STIR Team
STIR Team
STIR Team
Emmanuel Selva Royan
GP Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
STIR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Rishma Banerjee
Rashmi Ramesh
Sourina Bej
S Shaji
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
STIR Team
NIAS Africa Team
Naina Singh
GP Team
Amit Gupta
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
NIAS Africa Team
STIR Team
STIR Team
NIAS Africa Team
GP Team
NIAS Africa Team
Anu Maria Joseph
Ashwin Immanuel Dhanabalan
Joeana Cera Matthews
NIAS Africa Team
NIAS Africa Team
Joeana Cera MatthewsÂ
Ashwin Immanuel Dhanabalan
STIR Team
GP Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Mohamad Aseel Ummer
IPRI Team
STIR Team
Shalini Balaiah
Angelin Archana
Prakash Panneerselvam
N Jayaram
S Shaji
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Apoorva Sudhakar
Joeana Cera Matthews
Padmashree Anandhan
Harini Madhusudan
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Sneha M
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
D. Suba Chandran
Ankit Singh
Ankit Singh
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Sneha M
D. Suba Chandran
D. Suba Chandran
Sneha M
Ankit Singh
Apoorva Sudhakar
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Harshita Rathore
GP Team
Apoorva Sudhakar
Ankit Singh
Ankit Singh
Sneha M
Vishnu Prasad
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Ankit Singh
Apoorva Sudhakar
Ankit Singh
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Vaishnavi Iyer
Joeana Cera Matthews
Sneha M
Ankit Singh
Apoorva Sudhakar
Ankit Singh
STIR Team
GP Team
Padmashree Anandhan
Joeana Cera MatthewsÂ
Sourina Bej
IPRI Team
D. Suba Chandran
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
D. Suba Chandran
Apoorva Sudhakar
Sneha M
D. Suba Chandran
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
D. Suba Chandran
Ankit Singh
Apoorva Sudhakar
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
D. Suba Chandran
D. Suba Chandran
Chetna Vinay Bhora
GP Team
IPRI Team
STIR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Aswathy Koonampilly
GP Team
IPRI Team
STIR Team
GP Team
Sourina Bej
Harini Madhusudan
Vineeth Daniel Vinoy
GP Team
IPRI Team
STIR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Juan Mary Joseph
Joeana Cera MatthewsÂ
Sukanya Bali
Joeana Cera MatthewsÂ
IPRI Team
Bhuvan Ningania
STIR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Lokendra Sharma
GP Team
IPRI Team
Apoorva Sudhakar
Anu Maria Joseph
GP Team
Jeshil J Samuel
STIR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
STIR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Keerthana Rajesh Nambiar
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Anu Maria Joseph
Sankalp Gurjar
Apoorva Sudhakar
Lokendra Sharma
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Dincy Adlakha
Dincy Adlakha
Joeana Cera MatthewsÂ
GP Team
IPRI Team
STIR Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
SDP Scholar
GP Team
IPRI Team
Chetna Vinay Bhora
Anju Joseph
GP Team
IPRI Team
SDP Scholars
GP Team
Sarthak Jain
Sourina Bej
Vibha Venugopal
Dincy Adlakha
Udbhav Krishna P
Joeana Cera Matthews
Keerthana Rajesh Nambiar
Julia Mathew
Dhanushaa P
GP Team
IPRI Team
SDP Scholars
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Apoorva Sudhakar
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
​​​​​​​Rashmi BR
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
V S Ramamurthy and Dinesh K Srivastava
Lokendra Sharma
GP Team
Harini Madhusudan
Apoorva Sudhakar
IPRI Team
GP Team
GP Team
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Akriti Sharma
Avishka Ashok
Apoorva Sudhakar
Sukanya Bali
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Apoorva Sudhakar
Avishka Ashok
Harini Madhusudan
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Sukanya Bali
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
GP Team
IPRI Team
N Manoharan and Drorima Chatterjee
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
D Suba Chandran
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
Apoorva Sudhakar
Teshu Singh
Rashmi Ramesh
Aparaajita Pandey
Teiborlang T Kharsyntiew
Sandip Kumar Mishra
Sourina Bej
Harini Madhusudan
Gunjan Singh
Sukanya Bali
Sumedha ChatterjeeÂ
GP Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Rashmi Ramesh
IPRI Team
GP Team
Harini Madhusudan
IPRI Team
Harini Madhusudan
GP Team
IPRI Team
Sukanya Bali
GP Team
Savithri Sellapperumage
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
GP Team
Harini Madhusudan
Rashmi Ramesh
Mallika Devi
IPRI Team
Srikumar Pullat
GP Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
Harini Madhusudan
Lokendra Sharma
GP Team
Nancy Pathak
Shreya Sinha
Kamna Tiwary
Tamanna Khosla
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
Vaishali Handique
Sneha Tadkal
Unnikrishnan M J
Rashmi Ramesh
A Padmashree
Oviya A J
Harini Sha P
Chavindi Weerawansha
Arjun C
Lakshmi V Menon
GP Team
Samreen Wani
Sankalp Gurjar
IPRI Team
Harini Madhusudan
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
GP Team
Sourina Bej
GP Team
IPRI Team
Harini Madhusudan
Samreen Wani
GP Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
GP Team
GP Team
IPRI Team
IPRI Team
Mahesh Bhatta
N. Manoharan
Prof PM Soundar Rajan
Harini Sha P
Rashmi Ramesh
Sourina Bej
D. Suba Chandran
Harini Madhusudan
La Toya Waha
Jenice Jean Goveas
Sanduni Atapattu
Chavindi Weerawansha
Chrishari de Alwis Gunasekare
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
Natasha Fernando
Ruwanthi Jayasekara
N Manoharan
Asanga Abeyagoonasekera
Kabi AdhikariÂ
Jenice Jean Goveas
Fatemah Ghafori
GP Team
Sukanya Bali
Lakshmi V Menon
Rashmi Ramesh
Harini Madhusudan
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
GP Team
IPRI Team
La Toya Waha
D. Suba Chandran
Rohej Khatiwada
Rashmi Ramesh
Kabi AdhikariÂ
Malini SethuramanÂ
Aarathi Srinivasan
Roshni Sharma
Rashmi Ramesh
Dhruv Ashok
Prathiksha Ravi
Aswathy K
Padmini Anilkumar
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Lakshmi V Menon
Sourina Bej
Sukanya Bali
Harini Madhusudan
Parikshith Pradeep
GP Team
GP Team
Sukanya Bali
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
Aashiyana Adhikari
GP Team
Shailesh Nayak
Lakshmi V Menon
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Sukanya Bali
Parikshith Pradeep
Sourina Bej
Rashmi Ramesh
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
Rashmi Ramesh
Harini Madhusudan
Parikshith Pradeep
GP Team
GP Team
Harini Madhusudan
D. Suba Chandran
Parikshith Pradeep
Nidhi Dalal
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
Sourina Bej
Lakshman Chakravarthy N & Rashmi Ramesh
Sukanya Bali
GP Team
GP Team
Lakshman Chakravarthy N
Sukanya Bali
Parikshith Pradeep
Harini Madhusudan
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
Mahesh Bhatta
Titsala Sangtam
Lakshmi V Menon
Seetha Lakshmi Dinesh Iyer
Harini Madhusudan
GP Team
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Sourina Bej
Mahath Mangal
Titsala Sangtam
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
Raakhavee Ramesh
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Mahath Mangal
Mahath Mangal
Titsala Sangtam
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Mahath Mangal
Sourina Bej
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
Harini Madhusudan
Seetha Lakshmi Dinesh Iyer
Abigail Miriam Fernandez
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
Seetha Lakshmi Dinesh Iyer
GP Team
GP Team
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
Ryan Mitra
Sourina Bej
Lakshmi V Menon
GP Team
Harini Madhusudan
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
Seetha Lakshmi Dinesh Iyer
Sourina Bej
Harini Madhusudan
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
GP Team
GP Team
GP Team
Seetha Lakshmi Dinesh Iyer
Harini Madhusudan
GP Team
Lakshmi V Menon
GP Team
Sourina Bej
Harini Madhusudan
GP Team
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
GP Team
D. Suba Chandran
Seetha Lakshmi Dinesh Iyer
GP Team
Mahesh Bhatta
Nasima Khatoon
Harini Madhusudan
Sourina Bej
Seetha Lakshmi Dinesh Iyer
Harini Madhusudan
Ryan Mitra
Sourina Bej
Harini Madhusudan
Divyabharathi E
Lakshmi V Menon
Nasima Khatoon
Harini Madhusudhan
Sourina Bej
Ryan Mitra
Hely Desai
Young Scholars Debate
Siddhatti Mehta
Sourina Bej
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
Harini Madhusudhan
Druta Bhatt
Divyabharathi E
Apoorva Sudhakar
Divyabharathi E
Oishee Majumdar
D. Suba Chandran
Sourina Bej
Gayan Gowramma KC
Druta Bhatt
Siddhatti Mehta
Miti Shah
Aparupa Bhattacherjee
Harini Madhusudan
Apoorva Sudhakar
Hely Desai
Manushi Kapadia
Lakshmi. V. Menon
Divyabharathi E
Miti Shah
Hely Desai
Druta Bhatt
Manushi Kapadia
Miti Shah
Divyabharathi E
Hely Desai
Apoorva Sudhakar
Lakshmi V Menon
Samreen Wani
Divyabharathi E
Ann Maria Shibu
Dhruv Ashok
Lakshmi V Menon
Harini Madhusudan
Jamyang Dolma
Divyabharathi E
Lakshmi V Menon
Jamyang Dolma
Shalini E
Dhruv Ashok
Apoorva Sudhakar
Ann Maria Shibu
Divyabharathi E